Canada
| Canada (en) | |||||
| Canada (fr) | |||||
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| National motto : A mari usque ad mare (From coast to coast) | |||||
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| Official Languages | English French | ||||
| Capital | Ottawa 45 24'N 75 40'W / 45.4, 75667 | ||||
| Cities | Toronto , Montreal , Vancouver , Calgary | ||||
| Form of State | Constitutional monarchy Parliamentary democracy | ||||
| - Queen - Governor General - Prime Minister | Elizabeth II David Lloyd Johnston Stephen Harper ( Conservative Party ) | ||||
| Area - Total - Water (%) | Ranked 2 nd 9,984,670 km 2 8.62% | ||||
| Population - Total ( 2010 ) - Density | Ranked 37 th 34019000 ( 1 April 2010 ) ( 14th ) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) ( 2008 ) | 1 510 billion dollars ( 11th ) | ||||
| HDI ( 2010 ) |  0.888 (high) ( 8th ) | ||||
| Currency | Canadian Dollar ( CAD ) | ||||
| Time Zone | UTC -3:30 to -8 | ||||
| National anthem | O Canada | ||||
| Internet domain | . Ca . Gc.ca (Government) | ||||
| Indicative Telephone | +1 | ||||
| International Organizations | |||||
| United Nations (UN) Organization of the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) World Trade Organization (CMO) | |||||
Canada, the world's second largest country by area after Russia , occupies the northern part of North America. It stretches from east to west from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and north to the Arctic Ocean , where the motto: From coast to coast. It shares borders with the United States , south and northwest ( Alaska ). The country is more precisely a federation composed of 10 provinces and 3 territories.
His name is pronounced in French and in English. Docked in 1534 by French explorer Jacques Cartier , the first European to set foot on the continent since the Vikings , Canada takes its origin as a French colony on the territory of the present city of Quebec , founded by Samuel de Champlain in 1608 in the valley of the St. Lawrence River. The territory was first occupied by the people indigenous to the French who developed diplomatic relations. French colonization will take until the British conquest in 1763, 69,000 French immigrants in North America. After the Conquest, the British will acquire the land of New France. Then begins a period of English colonization, mainly thanks to the arrival of Loyalist settlers from New England after the American Revolution. Later, in 1867, the British create the Dominion of Canada, a federal state born of the union of three British colonies : the United Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The Act of the British North America 1867, a British law that includes the majority of the Constitution , will be repatriated in the early 1980s to give up in Canada. In the early twenty-first century, Canada is a federation of ten provinces and three territories, each of which has its premier and its legislature. The country gained its independence from the UK and this peacefully, in a process that extended from 1867 to 1982.
Canada is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system , defining itself as a nation bilingual and multicultural , the French and English are of equal status, the official languages. Nation industrialized and technologically advanced, its economy is mainly based on diversified its abundant natural resources and the trade done largely with the United States , a country with a complex relationship which lasted since colonial times and the beginnings of modern Canada.
The Quebec is the only province with a great majority of French and whose only official language is French, while New Brunswick is the only province legally bilingual. The other eight provinces are inhabited by large majorities English , but each of them is inhabited by communities of French sizes. The Yukon Territory is officially bilingual (French and English). The Northwest Territories and the Nunavut which it is derived, recognize 11 languages, including French, English and many languages Inuit. In 2006 , Canada had about 9.6 million Canadians (30.7% of the population) can speak French, while 26.6 million (85%) were able to speak English .
Origin of name
Historians agree today that the "country of Canada" originally referred to the current city and immediate region of Quebec.
According to their research, the name "Canada" means "village of huts" in the language spoken in the early sixteenth century (ie the Laurentian ) by the Iroquois of the St. Lawrence River wintering in Stadacona , the first Indians that Jacques Cartier had met in the summer of 1534 in Gaspe.
According to the official website of Canadian Heritage: "In 1535, two Indian Youths told Jacques Cartier about the route to" kanata ". They were referring to the village of Stadacona, "kanata" was simply the word for "a" village "or" settlement in the Huron-Iroquois. For want of another name, Cartier used the name "Canada" not only to Stadacona (present site of Quebec City) but also throughout its chief, Donnacona. "
At the end of the Second relationship of Jacques Cartier (the one covering the years 1535 and 1536 ), a dictionary of the language "of the country and kingdom . This "city" that, according to Cartier, the Iroquois called canada is Stadacona. The two institutions that are Hochelaga and Stadacona, Cartier and said each "kingdom" because they are each governed by a single chef (as in France, the king). The term "New France", Verrazano was used in 1524 (in Latin), and Cartier used here to refer to all establishments winter from Stadacona (aka Canada) Hochelaga, inclusive.
Jacques Cartier is the first to use the word "Canada" to designate a territory, one that matches today at the Quebec City and its neighboring areas, including Stadacona is the main village. He called in his writings, the Iroquois in the region of Quebec, "Canadian." It was not until the following century that the word "Canada will be used to designate any space occupied or explored by the French in North America : Champlain will begin by writing the " New France , commonly called Canada " This suggests that the name "Canada", shorter, is already popular enough to win another title soon.
Books and early European maps apply this designation, Canada, the French settlement established along the banks of the St. Lawrence River (mainly in the territory of present-day Quebec), Canada and then the name is recovered by the authorities of the Empire UK to describe most of the settlements contiguous it manages in North America.
History
Pre-Columbian period (before foundation)
Geological History
While Pangaea is still a vast territory, in the era Paleozoic , training and development of the mountain range Appalachian begins the period Devonian , there are 410 million years. After the split of Pangea at the beginning of the Mesozoic, the northern part of it, the Laurasia - (Laur) Eur your sewing + (Asia) , split into two during the period Jurassic. The western part formed what later became North America and drifted for millions of years to its current location. Then, the formation of the Rocky Mountains began there 138 million years during the period Cretaceous. At the end of that period that the Earth was present at the mass extinction of animals, including dinosaurs. The oil reserves began to be formed later mainly in Alberta and later became a major economic resources of Canada. Then, it was not until the end of the Tertiary era Cenozoic there are 5 million years to begin training the polar ice cap covering northern Canada. Towards the end of this period, the climate began to cool opening the door to a glacial era and the migration of mammals across continents. It is during the Quaternary there are 1.6 million years the climate became extremely cold and that changes in sea level provoked the onset of the Great Lakes , from Lake Champlain , the St. Lawrence River , d other large lakes and this, in addition to the Laurentian Plateau. The development and migration of modern humans began to the time Holocene 10,000 years ago. At that time, the climate warmed and became drier, thereby melting ice .
Prehistory to early European exploration (of 27500 BC. To 990 AD.)
While little material evidence of their presence, archaeological trace the presence of indigenous peoples on the territory of Canada to more than 26,500 years in northern Yukon and 9500 years in southern Ontario. Thus, some regions of the present territory of Canada are inhabited by peoples Amerindian and Inuit since time immemorial. These indigenous people have arrived in America through their migration through the Isthmus of Beringia between Alaska and Siberia east.
Both the First Nations Inuit that lived mainly on hunting, fishing and trapping. Each nation was organized in specific regions and had its own cultural characteristics, all related to nature. The animism , however, was the main religion of all indigenous peoples.
So based on the island of Newfoundland, the Beothuk were the first indigenous nation to come into contact with Europeans came to tread the soil of America. They are the source of the term Red Indians, which will then be generalized to other Indian nations of North America. By their isolation from other indigenous peoples, the Inuit will be more known about them until the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century when the French Canadian explorers will go to their meeting in the North. They will then be known to Eskimos.
Caution: These data have been revised since the mitochondrial DNA studies have shown a close relationship between some populations of Canada and those in northern Europe (factor X) which is also absent from the other continents. For more details on this topic, see the article on human migration.
From Ericson to Columbus (990-1492)
Early European exploration began about them on the coasts of Labrador and the island of Newfoundland , which are visited by the Vikings , the Normans and probably the Basques from the 1st millennium. The Icelandic explorer Leif Ericson is in fact the first European to visit the east of the present territory of Canada (Newfoundland Island) around the year 990 after the Icelandic browser Herjlfsson Bjarni had seen some years ago according to the saga of Erik the Red , . The remains of the village erects it can be found at L'Anse aux Meadows on the island of Newfoundland when he appoints three regions extending from Baffin Island to Newfoundland Newfoundland Labrador through: Helluland , Markland and Vinland.
Subsequently, it seems that the Basques will fish on the Grand Banks of cod off the island of Newfoundland for nearly half a century. These are based among other things, after the rediscovery by Columbus, the colony of Placentia will cover the islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon , and which later became a haven for French fishermen in addition to a satellite colony for the Acadia and Canada .
The beginnings of modern colonization (1492-1534)
Venetian explorer Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) and his son Sebastian had landed at Bonavista (Newfoundland) in 1497 on behalf of King Henry VII of England, probably following in the footsteps of Venetian Zen brothers who have landed in the fourteenth century, although no evidence exists for this purpose (the documents were destroyed in the fire at the Doge's Palace) . In fact, the map is drawn behind the border conflict of Labrador, which still opposes Quebec Newfoundland and Labrador regarding the ownership of the current territory of Labrador. While Quebec supports the territory of Labrador is just based on a strip with a width of one mile on the coast of the Labrador Sea , the province of Newfoundland and Labrador considers that extends to the line of the watershed (current border demarcated by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London in 1927) .
In search of the Northwest Passage , the Portuguese explorer Gaspar Corte-Real for his visit to the island of Newfoundland in 1500, but returned to Portugal after being captured Indian slaves . These territories will however be incorporated in Canada in 1949 to form the modern province of Newfoundland and Labrador while the territory of Labrador is a French possession and it became part of Canada from the eighteenth century.
New France (1534-1760)
Exploration
From Saint-Malo on Armorican coast aboard two ships, Jacques Cartier and his crew of 61 men headed toward the New World where they visited Newfoundland , the Gulf of Saint-Laurent , the les-de-la-Madeleine and the Prince Edward Island Prince Edward Island. Then finally, Cartier landed in 1534 in Gaspe (nicknamed the "Cradle of French Canada"), to plant a cross and took possession of the land on behalf of the King of France, Francis I.. Thus, Jacques Cartier became the second representative of the King of France to come to America after the voyage of Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524, which runs along the coastline stretching from Florida to Nova Scotia and became the first to use the name "New France".
During his second voyage in 1535 aboard the Grande Hermine (Petite Hermine and the mrillon complement its vessels), went up the river first to Stadacona (Quebec), where he sees Donnacona, Chief St. Lawrence Iroquoian (now extinct or assimilated people, which is often wrongly confused with the Iroquois and Hurons / A>), he had already met in Gasp on his first trip. It means the territory around Stadacona as the "country of Canada" (roughly, Quebec Region), a name which later will be generalized to the entire St. Lawrence valley, and finally to one of the settlements of New France. Then he went up the river to Hochelaga (now Montreal), stopped by the Lachine Rapids. In his third and last voyage in 1541, Jacques Cartier explored the lands of Canada in addition to its surrounding areas, and founded Charlesbourg-Royal at the mouth of the river Cap Rouge , at the western edge of Cap aux Diamants The Iroquois village of Quebec is at the east end of the Cape.
Although not yet proven that Giovanni Caboto has landed in Canada and Terra Nova (Newfoundland), several French explorers back to explore the New World after the departure of Jacques Cartier, which Jean-Franois de La Rocque de Roberval who in 1542 explored the Kingdom of Saguenay and founded France-Roy in the location of Charlesbourg-Royal vacated. In 1555, Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon attempts to establish a colony in Antarctica France in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro , but is quickly ousted by the Portuguese. Then from 1562 to 1565, the French Huguenot Jean Ribault and Ren de Goulaine Laudonnire of trying to colonize what is now South Carolina and Florida , but were massacred by the Spaniards. In search of the Northwest Passage , Martin Frobisher discovers meanwhile the Arctic region of Baffin Island including Frobisher Bay (Iqaluit) in 1576, on behalf of England, who later became a territory Canada. For the same purpose, Spain uses the Greek explorer Ioannis Phocas in 1592, which sailed north from Mexico today, reaching the waters of the Strait of Juan de Fuca (named in his honor in 1788 by its Spanish name) located between southern Vancouver Island and northwest of the present State of Washington. But he stops his journey before reaching the interior passage in the islands and fjords located west of British Columbia today.
Colonization
"Canada" itself refers to him as originally a French settlement in the territory of the present city of Quebec and, as a French colony , is one of the provinces of New France. The colony was founded along the banks of the St. Lawrence River in 1534 when the discovery of Quebec by Jacques Cartier and the development of diplomatic relations with the Indians of the region, then we must wait Tadoussac in 1600 to succeed the first settlement a French fort standing behind the present village of the same name at the mouth of the Saguenay River. French settlers who inhabit the Canada come mostly former provinces of France that was the Britain , the Normandie , the Poitou and Saintonge , while daughters of the King and a few dignitaries will arrive directly from Ile-de-France and Orleans .
The Recollects , early missionaries Catholics in New France, arriving in 1615 and offered land near the River St. Charles in 1620 to found a monastery. Although the site is left vacant for several years, Rcollets back in 1670 and see the site surrender he named Our Lady of the Angels. In 1692, Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrires , Monseigneur de Saint-Vallier then Bishop of Quebec since 1685, acquired the site and founded the General Hospital of Quebec the following year (now the hospital as a municipality enclosed and separated from Quebec under the name of Our Lady of the Angels).
For purposes of evangelization and education of American Indians, the Jesuits arrived in New France in 1625. They founded the College of Quebec in 1635 to educate boys to French and Hurons became Christians. Although their main purpose is religious conversion in the Native American tribes, the fact remains that the role of missionaries is a land of discovery through their relations with the Hurons. However, in 1648, the Iroquois , supported by the British, attacked the missions of Saint Joseph and Saint-Michel in Huronia, and there massacred the Catholic fathers, including Jean de Brebeuf , now known under the name of the Holy Martyrs-Canadiens.
Development
To lead the colony, King Louis XIII established the Governor of New France under the direct authority of Cardinal Richelieu from his duties as chief minister of state in 1624 until his death in 1642. Subsequently, the regent Anne of Austria appoint the Cardinal Mazarin in 1643 to succeed him until 1661.
In 1627 it created what the seigneurial system , the main mode of land administration of New France. This system is based on the feudal system of France under which the census (or population) is dependent on the lord. Founded by Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu, the Compagnie des Cent-Associs which includes Samuel de Champlain , is granted legal rights and manorial and this, in addition to the land distribution. It replaces the Company of Montmorency , founded in 1621, which took over the role of the first company of fur traders, the merchants of Rouen Company , founded in 1613 by Samuel de Champlain and both have failed in their obligations colonization. Thus the territory of New France was divided into manors , each facing a river, settlers returned to the highest bidder in order to exploit the wealth of economic entities which will become essential to their survival. In addition, the Compagnie des Cent-Associs obtain a monopoly of the fur trade in the French colonies in North America. In 1645, this monopoly of trafficking will be transferred to the Compagnie des Habitants (except the Acadia) . Another important change during the year 1627: the Compagnie des Cent-Associs introduced the Custom of Paris who, in 1664, became mandatory under the royal edict creating the West India Company. This unique code of law has thus standardize the relationship between citizens across the colony, especially in civil and commercial matters .
At the first conquest of 1629, New France came under British rule when the merchant Sir David Kirke , along with his brothers, took possession of the fort and castle of St. Louis after the assault on Quebec City where he sum Samuel Champlain to surrender. The latter is forcibly taken to Britain to negotiate the terms of the sale of French territories in America. However, after a period of three years of dithering, it is released, and restores the New England-France in France in 1632 during the signing of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Upon his return in 1633, Samuel de Champlain built the Notre-Dame-de-recovery (the site of Place-Royale in the Lower Town of Quebec ) and so named to highlight the fact that France (. ..) .
In 1634, the city of Trois-Rivires is founded by a certain Laviolette (which we know nothing except that he is an emissary of Samuel Champlain ), on the north bank of the river at the confluence of the three channels designed by the St. Maurice River , halfway between Quebec and the future site of Montreal. This site was, since the beginning of the century, a strategic location for the fur trade with the developing to the northwest. And that in 1639 the first nuns of the Congregation of the Ursulines settled in New France in the region of Quebec, and founded the first school for girls in North America. In 1697, she settled in Trois-Rivieres, and with the help of the Bishop of Quebec, will buy the governor of Trois-Rivieres Claude de Ramezay , a house in which they will aim to open a school and hospital.
Upon enlargement of the borders in vacant land and development of diplomatic relations with the Algonquins , the French are facing the threat of British and Iroquois attacks. So in order to protect the settlers as Ville-Marie ( Montreal ), founded in 1642 by Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve was built on an island at the foot of Mount Royal. And it is in the same year that Jeanne Mance founded the hospital of Ville-Marie, First Hospital. Although within the secular state, it is always assisted by the Sisters of St. Joseph Hospital. In 1653, Sieur de Maisonneuve Calls Marguerite Bourgeoys to settle in Ville-Marie to become a teacher. She built that same year the chapel Notre-Dame-de-Bon-Secours (in Old Montreal today) and founded the Congregation of Notre Dame in 1659.
After the killings of the Jesuits, Charles le Moyne de Longueuil and Pierre Picot Belestre to undertake, starting in 1648, a series of diplomatic expeditions in Iroquois country, which will lead to the expedition led by Governor Daniel de Rmy de Courcelles in 1666 and puts an end to the Iroquois threat. However, while the British and Iroquois attacks intensify and become increasingly imminent over the years, many French are committed to defending the colony and rise to the rank of Hero of New France. The best known is probably Adam Dollard des Ormeaux , Sieur des Ormeaux and garrison commander of Fort Ville-Marie, who travels in 1660, during the Battle of Long Sault , with a team of young soldiers strength of the Chaudiere Falls on the Ottawa River , to defend New France against the Iroquois invasion. Although he died in battle, it will nevertheless be recognized as having repelled the invasion. His name is still well rooted in the imagination of francophones in Quebec and Ontario who celebrate each year with a holiday in May. Then a young woman of 14 named Marie-Madeleine Jarret Verchres defended in 1692 for eight days, the fort Verchres through a back and forth and clothes of soldiers while the attackers believe that the fort is full of men while a single soldier there before.
Between 1654 and 1656, the trapper Mdard Chouart Groseilliers of expanding the boundaries of New France by exploring the territories of what is now northern Ontario in addition to those bordering the Hudson Bay and became one of the first Europeans to reach Lake Superior. He returned in 1659 with Pierre-Esprit Radisson in order to exploit the fur trade. However, upon their return in 1660, they are reprimanded by the Governor Pierre de Voyer d'Argenson, Vicomte de Mouzay for illegal trade.
Like the vast majority of the pioneer families of Canada, which established including the island of Orleans , Charles Aubert de La Chesnaye arrived in New France during the 1650s. From that moment, he will develop the economy of the colony, including becoming the first businessman in Canada and that, by creating multiple businesses and acquiring property rights of fur trading companies, but also by becoming one of the greatest lords and landowners of Canada. In 1682, he created the Hudson's Bay North, which will get the monopoly of the fur trade in the colony of North Bay (Hudson Bay) until 1700 , the year in which it is dissolved and replaced by the Company of the Colony .
Shortly after the start of construction of the Basilica of St. Anne de Beaupre in 1661, Monsignor Francois de Montmorency-Laval , acting governor of New France on two occasions, became the first bishop of Quebec in founding the Seminary of Quebec in 1663, causing the first university in Canada and the oldest francophone university in America, the University Laval. And that in 1672 we see the beginnings of the construction of the Basilica of Notre-Dame de Montreal thanks to the priests of St. Sulpice. Although the diocese of Quebec was created in 1674, the vicariate apostolic of New France was established in 1658 to study the ground for the establishment of an official Catholic administration in Canada. The Catholic Church played an important political role as the Bishop of Quebec will be responsible in government for matters relating to religious belief, education and health to the Quiet Revolution in Quebec in the 1960s. Over the centuries, the diocese will take more and more importance to the point where it will cover the entire territory of New France in the eighteenth century. Although it will eventually split into other dioceses, it will retain its political importance among all others. Indeed, he acquired the title of Archdiocese of ecclesiastical province and ultimately primacy of the Catholic Church of Canada.
In 1665, Jean Talon , known as the builder, was appointed by Jean-Baptiste Colbert under commission of King Louis XIV as the first Intendant of New France. Upon his arrival, the king also bring in troops to defend the colony against the Iroquois threat. Thus, Lieutenant General Alexander Prouville , Marquis de Tracy, built three forts along the Richelieu River : The Fort Richelieu at the current location of the town of Sorel-Tracy , the Fort Sainte-Thrse close of Carignan and Fort St. John near the present city of Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu. Still in the spirit of its mission to build the colony, Talon also proposes to establish the Sovereign Council in a royal government and create courts in the cities of Montreal, Quebec City and Trois- rivers. In 1666, Jean Talon conducts the first census of New France and, following conclusions are drawn, it sets up a series of compensation measures and taxation to encourage marriage and birth rates. He brought from France and other 800 women, commonly called the " Daughters of the King "because they are invested by the king, which are hosted by Marguerite Bourgeoys. Throughout his stewardship, he encouraged the colonization of the St Lawrence, by creating and assigning the bulk of the estates of New France , like the governors to follow. Thus, starting from the end of the first half of the seventeenth century and throughout the second half, there will be early in the formation of regions of Quebec today with the arrival of French settlers and the development of the fur trade. Thus, with the settlement of new settlers and the Canadian Fur Trade, the site of several historical regional centers will be set today. Thus, New France to attend the birth of cities such as Baie-Saint-Paul , Blainville , Boisbriand , Boucherville , Chteauguay , Lachute , Laval , Laval , Lvis , Longueuil , Matane , Montmagny , Repentigny , Rimouski , Rivire- du-Loup , Sept-Iles , Terrebonne , Varennes and Vaudreuil-Dorion and La Tuque further north Belil on the Richelieu River and Saguenay River in the Saguenay Fjord. Although the seigneurial system is the only mode of land division, Jean Talon projects the creation of three villages in adopting the plan of subdivision radial Jesuits on the lordship of Our Lady of the Angels in 1665, as directed by the king Louis XIV. This division of land, unique in North America, enables the grouping of settlers to ensure their mutual protection against Iroquois attacks. Of the three villages projected Bourg-Royal, Bourg-Talon and Bourg-la-Reine, only the village of Bourg-Royal was born. Land triangle truncated unfolding all around a central quadrangle , located at the site of the historic district of Trait-Carr de Charlesbourg in Quebec City .
In 1669, King Louis XIV created a new position within the French ancien regime to lead the New France, that of State Secretary of the Navy. Thus, the Sovereign Council will be directly under his authority and receive the orders of the king through her. However, later, two other senior ministers of state have authority over the colony and thereby act in concert with the State Secretaries of the Navy at the time. It is true of Cardinal Dubois, who will assume this role under the regency of Duke Philippe d'Orleans from 1715 to 1723 as well as Andre Hercule de Fleury, who will perform the same tasks from 1726 to 1743 during the reign of Louis XV. With this new organization, Talon's success in diversifying the economy through the system mercantile established between New France, the metropolis and the French Antilles. It also expands the boundaries of New France in charge of explorers to explore new territories. Thus, the trapper Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette were sent to explore along the Mississippi Valley. Returning from their expedition, they stop at the site of the present city of Chicago (the crossing point between the Great Lakes of Canada and the Mississippi basin) and it creates a permanent fur trading. However, is that in 1682 Ren Robert Cavelier de La Salle took possession of the premises and appoint the territory stretching from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico named Louisiana in honor of the King of France. In addition, Jean Talon sends two teams to the east to find a solution for connecting Acadia and Canada by land route. In the same line of exploration, Charles Albanel , Paul Denys de Saint-Simon and Sbastien Provencher are recruited to explore the lands of the North Bay ( Hudson Bay ) and to support the sovereignty of France over this region when where 's Bay Company Hudson will commence its operations . Daumont Simon Francis St. Lusson for his part mission to explore the region of Ottawa and the Great Lakes basin, constituting a large part throughout the Canadian region of Pays d'en Haut.
Conducted by Pierre de Troyes , the Canadian explorer Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville expedition is sent to the James Bay and therefore went in 1686 in the region of Hudson Bay with a mission to dislodge the English which had established the Society of the Hudson Bay in 1670. They had improperly taken possession of the territories surrounding the water after the betrayal of Medard Chouart Groseilliers and Pierre-Esprit Radisson against France. These two French explorers had attracted interest from England to take control of the fur trade in the region in 1668 after the refusal of Louis XIV to grant them licenses. The only trip to England in the region was in 1610 when Henry Hudson sailed the waters of Hudson Bay. The latter, however, had established a winter camp on the shore of the bay since taken by the ice, without exploration of the territories, then was left for dead in the spring during the mutiny of his crew returned to England.
Wars
Competition for territory, naval bases, the fur and fishing becoming increasingly fierce, many wars broke out involving the French, Dutch, British and Native American tribes as allies. Thus, the eighteenth century will be characterized largely by wars intercolonial (named French and Indian Wars in New England ) that appear between the French, with the allies the Hurons and Algonquins, the Dutch and - initially - and The British thereafter, which are allied the Iroquois Confederation, to define the control of the fur trade, especially in the Ohio Valley. These wars intercolonial being committed around the same time that the four Franco-British wars in Europe between 1689 and 1763.
In order to protect the city of Quebec against New England, Governor Louis de Frontenac Buade built the first wall of the Citadel of Quebec in 1690. In October of that year, Governor Frontenac rejects the offer of surrender of the city and managed to repel the British from William Phips to the Battle of Quebec. More in 1695 to the present site of Kingston in Ontario, it follows the construction of Fort Frontenac , which was destroyed in 1688 by the Iroquois, while the old fort was built after negotiations between Governor Frontenac a delegation of Iroquois in 1673 to expand the fur trade in the Pays d'en Haut and protect Ville-Marie against the English.
Aboriginal nations had fought each other throughout the seventeenth century for the privilege of the fur trade with European powers, the New France finally signed the Peace of the Braves in 1701 between the Confederation and its allies Iroquois, also known as the Great Peace of Montreal , through the Governor Louis- Hector de Callieres. This includes nearly forty indigenous nations and several thousand French and indigenous delegates. While peace treaties were made previously by the various governors to the Iroquois, the treaty will put an end to the Franco-Iroquois wars and thus the wars between the indigenous peoples themselves who had started even before the arrival of Europeans North America. It will mark a turning point in relations between the French and Indians thus combining the French and the Iroquois in protection against attacks British , , .
Following the Franco-British War - the War of the League of Augsburg , the treated Ryswick of 1697 expanding the boundaries of New France, notably through the recognition by Spain of the western part of St. Domingue (Haiti) as a French possession. In addition, they put a temporary end to the war by returning to France the institutions of Hudson Bay and part of Acadia . Then, in the same year, Pierre LeMoyne D'Iberville is chosen by France to return to discover the mouth of the Mississippi River and to colonize Louisiana , which is coveted by the British. He founded the first settlement near the Bay of Biloxi , with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. The latter based in New Orleans in 1718.
In the same period of exploration that extends to the Illinois Country in Louisiana when the French attempted to colonize more territory in the south to meet the British threat in the Ohio Valley , Antoine Laumet of La Mothe, Sieur de Cadillac, founded in 1701 the city of Detroit with the construction of Fort Pontchartrain. The town of Windsor , on the other side of the Detroit River , will be populated in 1748 out of the fort, while the Fort Rouille be erected in 1750 to the present site of the City of Toronto under the order of Governor Jacques Peter's Taffanel La Jonquire , Marquis de La Jonquire.
After the British victory in the War of Spanish Succession , the British seized during the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, in St. Kitts in the West Indies, Newfoundland, Hudson Bay and the Acadia can lead to complete destruction of the capital of the latter, Port-Royal (Annapolis Royal). The territories of Acadia will form a new British colony which became known as Nova Scotia. However, for lack of an accurate assessment of the land area by the British, the French retain part of Acadia - including the regions forming the New Brunswick today, of Isle St. Jean (Prince Edward Island Prince Island) and Isle Royale ( Cape Breton ), on which they are undertaking the construction of the fortress of Louisbourg in 1718 which became the capital. During the War of Austrian Succession , the British from New England capture the fortress in 1745, but it will be returned to France when signing the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. The following year, British soldiers found the city of Halifax by creating a military outpost in order to populate the Nova Scotia from British settlers.
During the period of peace following the Treaty of Utrecht, in addition to the construction of the fortress of Louisbourg and the founding of Port la Joie (now the city of Charlottetown ) by the Acadians, settlers of the Nouvelle-France construisent le Chemin du Roy en 1737 afin de relier Qubec, Trois-Rivires et Montral sur la rive nord du fleuve. Ce chemin devient la premire route carrossable au Canada et est nomm ainsi dans l'espoir que le roi l'empruntera un jour. partir de 1720, les fortifications de la ville de Qubec sont par ailleurs riges. De plus, la colonisation franaise commence s'tendre le long de la rivire Chaudire , laquelle mne directement aux colonies de la Nouvelle-Angleterre partir de la ville de Qubec, et par consquent dveloppe la rgion de la Beauce allant mme jusqu'au site actuel de Lac-Mgantic. Puis, en 1738, la Nouvelle-France agrandit son territoire de plus belle en terres inconnues avec l'exploration de l' ouest canadien. La rgion est explore pour la premire fois grce Pierre Gaultier , seigneur de Varennes et de La Vrendrye, lequel fait construire le Fort Rouge l'emplacement actuel de la ville de Winnipeg. En 1740, son fils Franois atteint les montagnes Rocheuses et explore les rgions actuelles du Montana et du Wyoming. Aprs la Guerre de Succession d'Autriche, en 1748, Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil , alors gouverneur de Montral, reoit une seigneurie du roi Louis XV sur les terres de la ville actuelle de Saint-Hyacinthe. Ce cadeau de la France devient le dernier legs au Canada.
La Nouvelle-France s'tend dornavant des montagnes Rocheuses aux Appalaches. Cependant, afin de prendre le contrle du commerce de la fourrure et d'empcher l'expansion du catholicisme en Amrique, les Britanniques tentent de plus belle de s'emparer des territoires de la Nouvelle-France, notamment en essayant de se rendre dans la valle de l'Ohio. Lorsque la guerre de Sept Ans clatera en 1756 entre la France et la Grande-Bretagne en Europe, la guerre fera donc dj rage en Amrique.
Ainsi, la guerre de la Conqute dbute au mois de mai 1754 lorsque Coulon de Jumonville est envoy en mission de reconnaissance savoir si le territoire franais (dans l'tat actuel de Pennsylvanie ) est en effet envahi par les Anglais et, le cas chant, pour dlivrer ces derniers une sommation de retrait au nom du roi Louis XV. Dans cette altercation qui sera connue comme tant l' Affaire Jumonville et la cause directe du dclenchement de la guerre, George Washington est accus par les Franais d'avoir ouvert le feu sur cet missaire du roi de France. Ce conflit a pour consquence la bataille de Fort Necessity en juillet de cette mme anne. Au cours de cette dernire, le commandant du Fort Duquesne (actuel Pittsburgh ), Claude-Pierre Pcaudy de Contrecur, dcrte l'ordonnance d'arrestation de George Washington par un contingent de soldats command par Louis Coulon de Villiers , se soldant ainsi par la premire victoire franaise.
Puis, en 1755, les soldats britanniques dirigs par Robert Monckton ouvrent une offensive et conduisent la bataille de Fort Beausjour dans la rgion du Beaubassin prs du village Le Coude en Acadie (site de la ville actuelle de Moncton ). Cette dernire mnera la Dportation des Acadiens (surnomm le Grand Drangement) par les Anglais, en cette mme anne, partir du village de Grand-Pr dans le bassin des Mines. Alors que la rsistance mnera des Acadiens se rfugier au Canada, d'autres conflits continueront la dportation dont la prise du Fort Gaspareaux et la bataille de Petitcoudiac en cette mme anne ainsi que la bataille du Cran en juillet 1758. Cependant, le sige de Louisbourg commena un mois avant cette dernire et mne la Grande-Bretagne contraindre la reddition les French fortress of Louisbourg in July, which will become a strategic point for the capture of Quebec City.
A series of expeditions and battles will unfold for the capture of the Ohio Valley, during which both the British and the French know wins and losses. Among the most decisive battles of the war of conquest in this territory, may be called, among other things, the battle of the Monongahela , the Battle of Lake George , the Battle of Fort Bull , the Battle of Fort Oswego , the ' Kittanning expedition , the Battle of Fort William Henry , the battle of Fort Carillon , the Battle of Fort Frontenac , the Battle of Fort Duquesne , the Battle of Fort Ligonier and the Battle of Fort Niagara (last major battle for the possession of the valley Ohio).
June 26, 1759, the siege of Quebec began when the British faced up to the island of Orleans. At the first attempt to land for the taking of Quebec, the English know, however, a defeat at the Battle of Beauport in July 1759. In September of that year, British troops landed at Anse au Foulon, and soldiers scaled the cliff at Cape Diamond. The Plains of Abraham is one of the most decisive battles of the war of conquest and leads to the final capture of the city of Quebec by General James Wolfe on Louis-Joseph de Montcalm , Marquis de Montcalm.
During the Battle of Sainte-Foy , the governor of New France and Franois Gaston de Lvis , Lvis Knight managed to repel the British General James Murray. However, British reinforcements arrive ahead of France and will lead in turn to the capitulation of Three Rivers and one in Montreal in September 1760 by Governor Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil Cavagnial , Marquis de Vaudreuil, under the conditions of General Jeffery Amherst , shortly after the Battle of the Thousand Islands. One last hope, however, was given by France to the settlers in New France in July 1760. A small fleet was sent in the army of Chaleur Bay , but was facing a battle in vain, the Battle of the Restigouche.
For three years, New France was dominated by a military English, and following the British victory in the Seven Years War , Great Britain finally appropriates Acadia, Canada and the eastern part of Louisiana (between the Mississippi and the Appalachians) to the Treaty of Paris in 1763.
Thus, New France ends and, although many vestiges of this past period still remain after the sale to Americans from the rest of Louisiana in 1803 by Napoleon Bonaparte , the Territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon the only remaining French possession in North America. From 1763 the French and Acadian settlers in Canada are cut all ties with the mainland by the British army. At least until the 1960s, this situation will lead and the Acadian and French Canadian with a lack of supply, an unconditional submission of survival since cut all military and other defense, and a loss against the English who take possession of the land and what the French, while being continuously supplied by the British metropolis.
Provisional British military regime (1760-1763)
While France and Great Britain are still at war in Europe, New France and New England out of a war that lasted almost seven years. As the administrative and political decisions concerning the colonies are taken by the respective cities, General Jeffery Amherst as commander in chief of the British army in North America, established a provisional military regime in New France. The latter contains no reform in order not to provoke the uprising of Canadians.
During this period, the Battle of Signal Hill puts an end to the French presence in St. John's Newfoundland in 1762. That same year, France secretly cedes Louisiana to the west of the Mississippi River, including New Orleans, to Spain by the Treaty of Fontainebleau. This assignment is made to prevent the territory from falling into the hands of Great Britain, but the territory will be ceded back to France in 1800, three years before selling it to Americans. After the Treaty of Paris of 1763, some Acadians will settle in the area they named Acadiana , but they soon discover that the territory is now a Spanish possession. Others will return to the Acadian land, joining those having hidden throughout the ethnic cleansing. However, they will be forced by the British army to disperse in small groups and then colonize the Acadian current PEI Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec and Newfoundland. This period marks the beginning of the reconstruction of a "New Acadia" to the Acadian people and lead to the "Acadian Renaissance" in the middle of the nineteenth century with the creation of institutions and national symbols .
Province of Quebec (1763-1791)
After the English conquest in America and the end of the Seven Years War in Europe, New France completely disappears and gives place to the British Empire. By Royal Proclamation made in 1763 under commission from King George III , Canada changed its name to the Province of Quebec , the first civilian government is established with a Governor-General at its head taking up the role of the Governor and the Intendant New France. Similarly the government of New France, Governor-General is under the authority of the British Crown through the Colonial Office (Colonial Office). In addition, the territory is limited to the base stand Valley St. Lawrence River. During the period, the Nova Scotia will cover almost the entire territory of Acadia until 1784, the colonies of Prince Edward Island Prince Edward Island and the Island of Cape Breton will be created, and it will expand the boundaries of Rupert's Land.
From 1763 to 1766, the Ottawa Indians rebelled against the British, which is known today as the Black Hawk War. During the last British soldiers begin a biological warfare with the indigenous population by distributing blankets infected with the virus of smallpox in the Indian forts.
In the Province of Quebec, the rights of French-Canadian citizens are reduced despite the agreement of capitulation of the city of Montreal. Canadian institutions were abolished, while institutions and British courts are established gradually. Thus, French Canadians can not practice their religion - and the test oath is mandatory for anyone wishing to hold a civil office - and use the Custom of Paris (customary law from the North of France) is replaced by the common law , British common law.
In 1763, two major political movements are emerging: the restoration movement where French Canadians seeking protection and recognition of their civil and religious reform movement in British merchants settled in the colony where the asked the immediate implementation of British institutions such as chamber of the legislature. Faced with threats of insurgency in the province of Quebec , under pressure from the Catholic Church and for practical reasons, London finally proclaims the Quebec Act in 1774 under the recommendations of the Governor Guy Carleton. The new act extends the boundaries of the colony including the territories of the Ontario current and Ohio Valley. In addition, the Quebec Act gives certain privileges to French Canadians such as the conservation of the seigneurial system and the right to practice the Catholic religion and to use the Custom of Paris to govern trade and civil relations. The test oath was abolished, but the criminal law and British criminal, however, is maintained. In addition, it prohibits Canadians restore links with the motherland.
At the Battle of Quebec in 1775 , the Americans attacked the British based in Quebec and trying in vain to seize the city to lift the French Canadians against Great Britain and win their support in the quest for independence United States. Despite this defeat, the city of Montreal and the forts on the Richelieu River, however, are forced to surrender. The Continental Congress , Legislature Joint thirteen colonies of New England, had twice tried to recruit French Canadians, but most of them decided to remain neutral in the opinion of the Catholic clergy. The revolutionary forces withdrew after the conflict. Then, during the Saratoga Campaign in 1777, they returned and led a series of battles for the takeover of Hudson Bay, but must go back through the defeat in the second battle of Saratoga in the fall that same year.
Although the reform movement has been sustained over the period of the War of Independence of the United States of America , he is back after signing the Treaty of Paris of 1783 which ended the war. The protest is even more amplified when nearly 50,000 United Empire Loyalists immigrated to the colonies of the Province of Quebec , the Nova Scotia , the Island of Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland Newfoundland to remain loyal to the British Crown. A draft constitution will be established parliamentary and lead to the establishment of a legislative assembly in 1791.
On the other hand, the territories held by the British Empire in North America after the Revolutionary War, including all the Loyalists took refuge there, will now be known as constituting the British North America. The majority of Loyalists settle in the western province of Quebec, along the Lake Ontario and the Thousand Islands archipelago , founding such cities current Belleville , of Brockville and Cornwall , while populating the site further from the city of Kingston. However, further east, as the loyalists are not welcome in Nova Scotia , the western part of it comes off to form a new colony, New Brunswick , who welcomes them in 1784. Loyalists settle the Acadian sites including the present towns of Fredericton and Saint John. In addition, with the start of the Wild West and the transfer of the southern territories of the newly formed United States of America by the United Kingdom, the province of Quebec is forced to reduce its boundaries. Thus, she loses the Ohio Valley and the new southern borders are defined by natural barriers such as the Great Lakes and the Niagara River.
Upper Canada and Lower Canada (1791-1840)
To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists who fled to the west of the province of Quebec, the latter is divided by the Constitutional Act of 1791 into two separate colonies, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Upper Canada is now Ontario, composed mainly of United Empire Loyalists from the American Revolution. Lower Canada is in Quebec today, and one finds a majority of Francophones appointed "French Canadians". Like all other colonies, Upper Canada's Lieutenant-Governor appointed by the Governor General. To protect the capital of American attacks, the legislative buildings of Upper Canada will move to Newark ( Niagara-on-the-Lake ) to York (Toronto) during the term of John Graves Simcoe , while the latter based London in 1793 also to the capital, but in vain. Lower Canada is itself headed by the Governor-General himself sitting in Quebec, the capital of British North America.
Although each colony is theoretically a democracy with a Legislature elected by the people - the House of Assembly of Lower Canada and the House of Assembly of Upper Canada - the latter has no real power. The government plan is a monarchy in which the Crown is in London and whose representation is through the Governor General and Lieutenant Governor. Moreover, contrary to Upper Canada where all members of the legislature (including the Legislative Council of Upper Canada ) are English - the constitutional act creates the Legislative Council of Lower Canada , whose members are unelected and appointed by the Governor-General. This provision has the effect of creating a bicameral system with two legislative chambers, where the Legislative Council's role is to counteract and control the legislative power given to the French Canadian majority in Lower Canada through the democratic system and this in appointing British peers.
In addition, the government is composed of two colonies of the Executive Council of Lower Canada and the Executive Council of Upper Canada, whose members are appointed by the Governor General of Lower Canada and the Lieutenant Governor in Upper Canada. This will therefore government policy up and down-Canadian form of plutocracy throughout the existence of the two Canadas. Moreover, in both colonies, the post of Provincial Secretary (Provincial Secretary) is created within each of the Executive Councils. It is under the authority of the Governor General and Lieutenant Governor. The provincial secretary of each colony will have a role similar to that of Prime Minister before the emergence of responsible government in 1848 and will be particularly responsible for communications between the colonial and imperial governments. The Chteau Clique , the name given to the government of Lower Canada, will be composed of people from English-speaking Montreal elite, including the most prominent figures will no doubt John Molson and James McGill to serve only the interests of commercial and other a small group of English high society. While in Upper Canada, the Family Compact (Family Compact) will conduct a monarchist political and ultra-conservative, whose goal is to establish the British model, to cripple the French Canadians and to abolish Catholicism. The Anglican Bishop John Strachan will face the most significant and its influence will grow after the War of 1812.
Thus, two decades after the establishment of the two Canadas, Canada plays a significant role in the War of 1812 in which the UK is trying vainly to recapture the territory of the United States. It stands out among others at the Battle of Queenston Heights in the American landing on the Niagara River, the Battle of York where the city is forced into surrender, the Battle of the River Thames where British forces are trying to curb advance of the Americans passed through Windsor and the Battle of Chteauguay during which French Canadians sow pitfalls to Americans, who try unsuccessfully to capture the city of Montreal to cut off the supply of Upper Canada , . Canada's defense earned him significant long-term benefits, particularly regarding the creation of a sense of unity and nationalism among the population of British North America. Massive immigration from Great Britain and the Irish to Canada is being felt in 1815, where immigrants settle in particular on the Niagara Peninsula and surrounding areas of Hamilton and joining the Loyalists arrived in 1784. In that year, the city of Drummondville is based halfway between Three Rivers and the city of Sherbrooke (populated by Loyalists in 1793) to establish a monitoring station on the St. Francis River , which gives a direct sea access the St. Lawrence River in the United States. A series of agreements then lead to long periods of peace between Canada and the United States, being interrupted only by brief raids made by political insurgents, the Fenians (Irish Americans), from 1866 to 1871 against the British authorities. These will be particularly supported by the Canadian politician Thomas D'Arcy McGee , but he will moderate his remarks before the Fenian invasion Battle of Ridgeway on the Niagara Peninsula in 1866.
Around the site of the town of Saint-Boniface (later annexed to the city of Winnipeg), which was founded in 1818 and inhabited by Metis near the Red River , Canada in 1816 to attend the Battle of Seven Oaks. The latter features two rival companies fur trading, the Company Hudson's Bay and Northwest Company , whose plan - which ended with a victory - is the takeover provisions of fur Fort Douglas by the Company of Hudson Bay.
In 1822, a draft legislative union of the two Canadas was submitted to Parliament in London by Lord Henry Bathurst , then Secretary of State for the Colonies, British Secretary of State for the Colonies. This provision has the effect of creating a Francophone minority with the French Canadian majority in Lower Canada. Lower Canadian representatives, including Louis-Joseph Papineau, went to London in 1823 to demonstrate the massive opposition in Lower Canada. The project was finally abandoned in that year.
Representatives of the Patriot Party (founded by French Canadians in the early nineteenth century with the name "Canadian Party") filed petitions in 1828 to the House of Commons in London, whose principals complain of arbitrary and illegal acts of Governor General George Ramsay against Francophones. The latter is removed from office in that year.
The failed attempts at constitutional reform, the absence of actual lawmaking power - the patronage of government, social difficulties and a sense of minority status of francophone lead the Patriots in Canada, led by Louis-Joseph Papineau and dissatisfied with their position of weakness, to send 92 resolutions to London in 1834 demanding more democratic powers for the Parliament of Lower Canada. In 1835, Governor Lord Gosford sets up the " royal commission on all penalties affecting the subjects of Her Majesty in Lower Canada. " This commission led to 10 resolutions of Russell in 1837, which embody the categorical refusal of London and the rejection of all applications and even allow the colonial government to bypass the budgetary authority of the House of Assembly of Lower Canada. The Patriot Party changes its strategy following the refusal and has several citizens' assemblies, including assemblies of Saint-Ours , of St. Lawrence , of St. Mark and Stanbridge Station , in addition to the six-Assembly counties where the column of freedom is built. During the last meeting as in the previous citizens support the idea of human rights , the constitutional struggle, the economic and trade boycott and approve the paramilitary organization of the Young Patriots, the Society of the Sons of Liberty. While refugees in Lower Canada, many Acadians involved in citizens' assemblies and support the Patriots, their contribution will also commemorated in 2002 with a walk and a monument in their honor in the Quebec City , . In addition, some Americans, including brothers Robert Nelson and Nelson Wolfred and some French recruited by the United States, including Charles Hindelang , sided with the Patriots and support the meeting, which will lead to civil war in Lower Canada in 1837, commonly known as the Patriotes Rebellion. In 1838, the Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada , written by Robert Nelson then returned to the United States with his supporters, promulgates the separation of church and state, then leads to the creation of the Republic of Lower Canada. This desire for independence and the revolution, however, are violently repressed by the British army and lead to a series of conflicts with the Battle of Saint-Denis , the Battle of St. Charles and the Battle of Saint-Eustache. In addition, during the Rebellion, the Iroquois regions of Kahnawake and Kanesatake declare their neutrality in the conflict, but still working with the British authorities. Several villages in the Montrgie were burned and looted, and the Patriots were hanged in 1839, with Francis Marie-Thomas Chevalier de Lorimier , the future site of the prison Parthenais Montreal. Some will appeal to the genocide of Lower Canada - reminiscent of indigenous people from 1763 to 1766 - which will last until the eradication policy language and culture come into force in 1840 through the Union Act , , . In addition, hundreds of French-Canadian families today are affected by the deportation of several Patriots . These include exiles in Australia, a penal colony, while others have fled to the United States.
The Upper Canada Rebellion waged against the British Empire is itself shorter and has no direct impact. Lower Canada as it seeks to reform the democratic system by introducing the ministerial responsibility. It is the result of the uprising of the Scots led by William Lyon Mackenzie and his Reform Party , which also leads to a declaration of independence, that of the Commonwealth of Canada. The revolutionaries flee Toronto and will establish the new government of the republic on Navy Island on the Niagara River. However, after being forced to leave the island by the Royal Navy , they cross the border where U.S. authorities catch them and make them prisoners for violating neutrality laws between the U.S. and the British Empire.
In 1838-1839, Canada is witnessing more of a border dispute during the Aroostook War , which opposes the British to the Americans in the Acadian region straddling the north-eastern state of Maine ( Aroostook County ), the east of Lower Canada ( MRC Tmiscouata ) and north-west of the colony of New Brunswick ( Madawaska County ), whose center is the present city of Edmundston . An agreement between the U.S. and the UK divides the region along the three borders known today. This region, commonly called the Republic of Madawaska , is composed of a majority Francophone population of Acadian descent, whose inhabitants are known as " Brayon "contrary to the Acadians in other regions that have preserved the same name.
Province of Canada (Canada-United Kingdom) (1840-1867)
Following the failed Rebellions of 1837 , Queen Victoria sanctioned the creation of a special board to administer the Lower Canada in 1839 and given to John Lambton, Lord Durham , the task of studying the political situation of the two Canadas. The report on the affairs of British North America (Durham Report) reflects the key recommendations of the latter. These are the reunification of the two colonies (which would reduce the large debt of Upper Canada by spreading throughout the territory) and the growing presence of British culture with French, in order to drown and to assimilate because they are considered without culture, no history, no country and no literature. Thus the Act of Union of 1840 merged the Canadas into a single quasi-federal colony, the Province of Canada - or commonly united Canada , repealing some of the rights granted to the French Canadians by the Act of 1774.
Thus, the Legislature of the Province of Canada is now the body that theoretically leads the colony. Its headquarters will alternately Kingston, Montreal, Toronto and Quebec, but will move permanently to Ottawa in 1866. The political structure of the Province of Canada has two prime ministers who act as advisor to the Governor General for each of two areas designated as Canada East and Canada West, which incorporate the same limits as Lower Canada and Upper Canada respectively. The role of prime minister of United Canada is still present today in the sense that it is the ancestor of the role of Quebec lieutenant when a federal politician acts as senior advisor to his party on issues specific to Quebec.
In the Legislature, the Tory Party or the Conservative Party English (embodied in the Family Compact and Chateau Clique), will gradually lose its influence until 1848. That year, one sees the introduction of the first responsible government of Canada as a result of the alliance between Sir Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and Robert Baldwin , both prime ministers of Canada East and Canada West , respectively.
Moreover, in this same year 1848, the Canadian Institute of Quebec was founded with the mission of promoting French culture to counter the growing influence of British culture. Writers such as Franois-Xavier Garneau will write several works that perpetuate the history of French Canadians over the years . Since the failure of the Patriotes Rebellion, the French-Canadian politicians, including George-Etienne Cartier , also of continually trying to negotiate with the British government to return to their province and their legislative powers.
On the other hand, at the end of the first half of the nineteenth century the industrial revolution made its appearance in Canada as in the rest of the British Empire. The wealthy English families settle in Canada particularly in the city of Montreal (financial capital) and will base some of the largest Canadian companies with current English Canadians in positions of foremen and French Canadians as workers. For over a century, the vast majority of French Canadians live folded in on itself, resigned to his fate in poverty and will be driven back to rural areas where the Catholic Church will play a political role ultramontane role in maintaining cohesion and in supporting the French-Canadian society . Thus, given the growth of British immigration to Canada, including the Catholic Church is trying to counter the effect of minority status of francophones in encouraging the birth rate, which is known today as the revenge of the cradle. This phenomenon continued until the late 1950s during the Quiet Revolution and the secularization of the state. During this period, there will be the posting of the Church by baby boomers. These will rise up against what is perceived to be abuses of the church occurred during the Great Darkness in Quebec from 1944 to 1959.
With the advent of responsible government, we are witnessing the foundation of many political parties and, thereby, creating a rudimentary diagram describing the workings of Canadian politics today. Thus, the Red Party is founded in Canada East in 1848 by Antoine-Aim Dorion , resuming Party ideology patriot Louis Joseph Papineau (originally the Liberal Party of Quebec ). tienne-Paschal Tach come about lui quilibrer la politique avec la cration du Parti bleu selon les ides plus modres de Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, lequel parti deviendra plus tard le Parti conservateur du Qubec et l' Union nationale , pour finalement s'teindre lors de la monte du mouvement souverainiste qubcois dans les annes 1960. Au Canada-Ouest, le parti libral-conservateur sera fond en 1854 par John Alexander Macdonald aprs la coalition du Parti rformiste (form au cours des annes 1830 en dfenseur de la rbellion haut-canadienne, pour devenir aujourd'hui le Parti libral de l'Ontario ) de Robert Baldwin et William Lyon Mackenzie, et du Parti (aujourd'hui le Parti progressiste-conservateur de l'Ontario ). Aprs une gamme de fusions de partis politiques au fil des ans, ce nouveau parti mnera au Parti conservateur du Canada en 2003 au sein duquel se retrouveront les et les - respectivement les partisans du progressisme et du conservatisme socio-conomique. George Brown fondera quant lui les (anctre du Parti libral du Canada et considr comme tant plus progressiste), mme les membres plus radicaux de la faction rformiste du Parti rformiste, en prnant la (principe de la dmocratie reprsentative o les dputs sont lus au prorata de la population), et donc la minorisation des Canadiens franais l'assemble lgislative du Canada-Uni. Ce parti sera peru comme privilgiant des politiques anti-francophones tant donn le principe dfendu de la reprsentation selon la population et la majorit anglaise qui existe dans l'ensemble du Canada-Uni.
Alors que le Canada Uni est au bord d'une guerre civile au dbut des annes 1860 et que la guerre de Scession des tats-Unis fait rage, ayant t renvers par les partis d'opposition la suite de son alliance avec le Parti rouge pour cause de scularisme anticlrical, les de George Brown s'associent en 1864 avec les partis de John Alexander Macdonald (Parti libral conservateur) et de George-tienne Cartier (Parti bleu), lesquels forment la coalition Macdonald-Cartier. Les irlandais feront cependant volte-face et appuieront le Parti rformiste de William Lyon Mackenzie. Ainsi, le gouvernement de coalition sera form et mnera la cration de la Confdration en 1867 et ce, notamment, dans le but de se prmunir des contrecoups de la guerre civile amricaine au Canada.
Aprs que les tats-Unis et le Royaume-Uni se furent entendus en 1846 pour retenir le 49 e parallle nord comme frontire sparant les tats-Unis de l'Ouest de l'Amrique du Nord britannique, le gouvernement de Grande-Bretagne signa avec les tats-Unis un accord de libre-change pour le Canada-Uni en 1854. Le Trait de rciprocit canado-amricain permit un regain dans l'conomie en chute libre de la . Cet accord prendra cependant fin en 1866, et l'conomie du Canada-Uni retombera la drive.
Le gouvernement de Grande-Bretagne cra la colonie de l' le de Vancouver en 1849, et en 1858 la colonie de la Colombie-Britannique lors de la rue vers l'or dans le . Ds la fin des annes 1850 , les dirigeants canadiens entamrent une srie d'explorations vers l'Ouest, menes entre autres par George Dawson et Joseph Burr Tyrrell , avec l'intention de prendre le contrle de la Terre de Rupert ainsi que de la rgion Arctique. Le Territoire du Nord-Ouest et le Territoire Stikine virent le jour en reprenant certains emplacements de la Terre de Rupert. La population canadienne crt rapidement grce un taux de natalit lev mass immigration came from Europe to counter the effect of emigration to the United States. Indeed, from the 1840s until the Great Depression of 1929, many French Canadians migrate in the states of New England (Northeast U.S.) to escape English oppression and in search of financial security. This mass exodus is known as the "Great Hemorrhage" . Also during these years many francophones will settle in Canada West and Francophone regions populate the current northern and eastern Ontario, although the French colonization was already present at the time of New France in parts of southern Ontario today .
Significant change at the end of the pre-confederation, as the government is now accountable to the public, the Legislative Assembly of Canada East predominantly francophone, abolished the custom of Paris and brought the Civil Code of Lower Canada in 1866 Like the Code Napoleon in France , to govern civil cases. This new code of law will experience a first reform in 1980 and then be completely reformed in 1991 and give the Civil Code of Quebec. In addition, during this period, the Province of Canada is experiencing a period of massive immigration from the southern United States following the Civil War. American immigrants settled mainly in the southern province of Quebec, and further populating the region of Cantons de l'Est , which was created when the Loyalists United Empire took refuge there after the Revolutionary War United States. Then, straddling the end of the regime of United Canada and the beginning of Confederation, we are witnessing a resurgence of development in the region of the Laurentians when Bishop Ignace Bourget concedes the parish of St. Jerome to Franois-Xavier-Antoine Labelle , well known as Labelle.
Confederation (1867-1982)
Following the Great Coalition at the Charlottetown Conference and the Quebec Conference in 1864, and the London Conference in 1866, the Fathers of Confederation undertake to unify the three colonies - the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick - leading to the creation of the Dominion of Canada. The Act of the British North America of 1867 creates the Dominion under the name of Canada, four provinces distinct: the Ontario , the Quebec , the New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The purpose of this organization is to drown Quebec, focusing heavily populated and francophones in a small group of English-speaking provinces with the same powers and to protect themselves against the expansionist ideas of the United States after the American Civil War. Although the formation of the Confederation began a process of some form of independence, the state remains monarchical regime. However, the monarchy became constitutional and responsible government to keep a parliamentary system.
As one of the fathers of Confederation, George-Etienne Cartier , a politician of great influence in Lower Canada, became the main precursor of the conservation of the French presence in the Canadian confederation, and the protection of the political system that forms the federal union. At the London conference in 1866, it was called by the English delegates, to be replaced by a legislative union central English majority, which would have abolished the principle of distribution of legislative powers known within the federal union current, and thereby, would have annihilated all legislative powers in the real French view of the minority who have been formed.
Subsequently, Canada began to take control of the land of the plain between British Columbia and Ontario going back to the Northwest Territory by the Rupert's Land. Canada is quickly integrates western territories through the expansion of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, the colony of British Columbia and the great plain. The Northwest Territories are created with the integration of the Northwest Territory and Rupert's Land in 1870.
The Red River Colony was founded and later became bilingual province of Manitoba. Indigenous peoples, including Metis (descendants of Indians and French and Scots), lived in a political structure of their own. Therefore, when the British army arrives to take possession of land, some tensions degenerate into open conflict, even war. Thus, a major political crisis is triggered between the British and the Metis people of the Plain, the latter wishing to preserve its authority and autonomy over its territory. The interim government has negotiated with the Canadian government, leading to the creation of the Province of Manitoba and its entry in the Confederation in July 1870. Canadian soldiers, many of whom were Orangemen have abused the mestizo population. Several Mtis moved westward. Louis Riel , the President of the Provisional Government was forced into exile in Montana because of a premium placed by the Ontario government.
The colony of British Columbia - which includes that of Vancouver Island since 1866 - and the colony of Prince Edward Island Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation respectively in 1871 and 1873. In addition, for the sake of unification and to extend the Union by supporting the Canadian authority on the provinces of West , the government built three transcontinental railroads - most notably the Canadian Pacific Railway - by employing Chinese immigrants (who have now become the Sino-Canadian) as slaves. However, the construction of the railway leading to the Pacific Scandal in 1873 in which Prime Minister John A. MacDonald is facing charges of corruption.
The government encouraged European immigrants to develop the Canadian Prairies , and to this end, he adopts the Dominion Lands Act and established the famous Mountie in the Northwest (now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ). As more and more immigrants from the United Kingdom go to the plain on the train transcontinental and the region's population grows, some of the largest known cities now springing up in the current the 1880s, including Regina , Saskatoon , Calgary , Vancouver and Whitehorse , thus supporting the cities of Edmonton and Victoria founded respectively in 1795 and 1843 by the Compagnie de la Baie d'Hudson, and the cities of Sault Ste Marie and Thunder Bay (based respectively in the seventeenth century by Jesuit priests and French fur traders). In 1883, the City of Sudbury (the city's most Anglicized of Ontario) will in turn founded following the discovery of mines of copper and nickel in the region, while seven years ago, the town of Thetford Mine was founded after the discovery of asbestos mines in surrounding areas. Moreover, in the late nineteenth century , the regions of the Northwest Territories , some of which include those cities, will give a new status, thus forming the Yukon Territory during the gold rush in the region the Klondike in 1897, and the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905.
Canada has a long history of violence motivated by hatred against racial and ethnic minorities . In this motivation, political institutions, the local press, the leaders recognized individuals and English-Canadian commission of a first anti-Chinese riot in 1887 in Granville ( Vancouver ), while a second riot in the same kind will take place in 1907 and will be increasingly directed towards immigrants from Japan. Similar attacks occur until the 1970s, notably during the Second World War, when members of the German and Japanese are arbitrarily detained in the inspiration of the anti-Semitism Nazi. In addition, we will discuss the movement skinhead who becomes a threat to the multicultural fabric of Canada, notably during the riot in Toronto in 1992. But in June 2006 that the Canadian government presented an official apology and compensation to the Sino-Canadian community for the "head tax on Chinese immigrants" with the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923 .
When the Red River Rebellion ended, several Mtis moved westward, to maintain their independence. They founded the colony of Batoche on the banks of the South Saskatchewan River north of the site of the present city of Saskatoon . However, with the arrival of British immigrants who took possession of prairie land in the 1880s and the imposition of land registration division of English land in townships (objecting to the seigneurial system) by the Canadian government, the Metis people rebelled against Canada and led a rebellion to establish an independent state. Louis Riel returned from his exile in 1884, led the unsuccessful attempt, now known as the Northwest Rebellion. During the latter, it witnessed a series of open conflict, the Battle of Duck Lake , Frog Lake massacre, the Battle of Fort Pitt, the Battle of Fish Creek , the Battle of Cut Knife, the Battle of Batoche The Battle of Frenchman's Butte and the Battle of Loon Lake. Mtis leader Louis Riel was captured and hanged for treason in 1885 by Canadian authorities.
Although the movement suffragette for voting rights for women has appeared in the 1870s, this right is granted for the first time in 1916 by the provinces of western Canada. The following year, the federal government will do the same, and the central provinces and the Atlantic and the territories will follow later .
The territorial divisions of the Confederation will change over the years, especially with the integration of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador in 1949 and the creation of the territory of Nunavut in 1999. Moreover, given the greed of the United States on the islands of the Arctic Archipelago , the explorer Joseph-Elzear Bernier and a group of French-Canadian sailors of the Islet-sur-mer in which Canada, as the early twentieth century, to support its sovereignty over a series of islands located beyond the Baffin Island. Taking possession of much of the Arctic by this group of explorers will also develop diplomatic relations with the Canadian Inuit , .
In another vein, it should be noted that the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador are still in disagreement over the portion of the border of two provinces in southern Labrador. Although a decision of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London ( Judicial Committee of the Privy Council ) ruled in favor of Newfoundland and Labrador in 1927 , , the Quebec border still considers this as n 'is not definitive .
Moreover, giving effect to the fur trade in the region, development of the Abitibi-Tmiscamingue will be felt in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century with colonization by loggers and agroforestry development, and in the period of the inter-war with a mine development of precious metals such as silver and gold and industrial minerals such as copper and zinc . Thus, we see the foundation of the great cities of the region such as Amos , Rouyn-Noranda and Val-d'Or. In the same vein, the city of Yellowknife , capital of present Northwest Territories, will be founded in the 1930s when the discovery of diamond mines and gold in the region, while the towns of Fermont and Schefferville, Quebec - on the border in west-central Labrador - will be based upon the discovery of iron ore in the second half of the twentieth century. The foundation of these cities will follow the founding of the town of Chibougamau , central Quebec, whose stand is also based on logging and mining. In the years 1960-1970, there will be further interest to the developing regions of the James Bay and the Manicouagan River in Quebec with the construction of dams, given the large hydroelectric potential. On the same path as that of the gold rush in the Klondike region, the regions further north prairie, especially those in Alberta and Saskatchewan will see their share of their population growth since the 1930s with the discovery and exploitation of oil deposits in the Athabasca oil sands. Northern British Columbia will be developed for its potential through its forest, while the south of the province will be thanks to the favorable climate for growing fruit and vegetables, especially in the valley of the Okanagan near City of Kelowna , which was founded in 1859 by Catholic missionaries Oblates of Mary Immaculate from France. The town of Frobisher Bay became Iqaluit in 1987 and the capital of Nunavut, meanwhile, will be populated during the Second World War where she will serve as a U.S. military base and to grow its population in the 1950s during the construction the DEW Line - radar system for detecting intrusions Soviet Union during the Cold War to provide for the protection of air sovereignty under the Aerospace Defense Command North American Command (NORAD). The community of Alert (Nunavut) on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island near the Arctic Ocean will have the same mission from 1958, while fishing is the main livelihood of coastal villages Nordic including those parts of Labrador, Northern Quebec , Nunavut and the Northwest Territories such as Inuvik with crab fishing in the Beaufort Sea.
The self-Canada
As part of the British Empire, Canada is included in the Second Boer War in South Africa by the first French-Canadian Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century. Headed by the politician Henri Bourassa , French Canadian groups oppose British rule are dedicated to defending their rights as people. They especially oppose the entry into Canada's war and the creation of Canadian naval forces under the British flag. Canada to proceed further in the First World War in 1914 and sent on the western front (in Belgium , the Somme and Picardy ), divisions composed mainly of volunteers to fight as a national contingent. The human loss is so great that the Canadian prime minister at the time, Sir Robert Laird Borden , decreed conscription in 1917 (see Conscription Crisis (1917) ). This decision is extremely unpopular in Quebec's population, leading to a loss of popularity in Quebec to the Conservative Party and also the famous strike of Quebec, often overlooked because echoing the revolt of the Chemin des Dames in France. During the great event of Quebec , the British army fired on the crowd, killing many people. Although members of the Liberal Party are deeply divided over conscription, they are unified and become the dominant party on the stage in Canadian politics.
In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations on its own and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster now confirms that no law of the British Parliament does not extend inside Canada's borders without its consent. Meanwhile, the Great Depression of 1929 affected Canadians of all social classes, and the growing popularity of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) in Alberta and Saskatchewan leading to a welfare state as pioneered by Tommy Douglas and later John Lesage in the 1960s in Quebec. He thus became the ancestor of the New Democratic Party today and advocates policies that are more socialist and populist. After supporting appeasement with Germany in the late 1930s , Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King obtained the approval of Parliament for entry into the Second World War in 1939, mobilizing the military before invasion of Germany by Poland. At the beginning of the war, promised that Quebec's participation in this war would be voluntary. When reporting for conscription, Houde , mayor of Montreal, was jailed following his official opposition (see Conscription Crisis (1944) ). Another area of contention, according to Canadian Constitution , only the provinces have the right to tax and taxation. Now to deal with the war effort, the federal government collects all tax powers by promising to return them to the end of the war. This promise was never fulfilled, except in Quebec found that half of its tax. No other province has so far found that right.
The Canadian economy is experiencing a strong boom during the war largely because of the plethora of military equipment on behalf of Canada, Great Britain , of China and the Soviet Union. Canada finished the war with one of the largest armies in the world. The Canadian economy has its moments of glory and continues to grow. At the same time, Canada is upgrading its social system that becomes a worldwide reference in several areas, including health.
In 1949, the Dominion of Newfoundland , formerly independent, joined the Confederation as the tenth province of Canada. With the abolition of the British Empire , all imperial ties are broken and Canada actually gets its independence, although its constitution is still in London.
Until Canada's centennial in 1967, massive immigration from war-ravaged from various states in Europe changed the curve of the demography of the country. In addition, throughout the Vietnam War , thousands of dissidents U.S. settled all over the country. The increased immigration - coupled with the baby boom , an economic force equivalent to that of the United States in the 1960s and the reaction to the Quiet Revolution in Quebec - promote the emergence of a new type of nationalism in Canada. The 1960's are also an opportunity for Quebecers to become politicized because of their non-representation in the strategic and economic positions. It was during this period that the independence movement which led to the founding of the Parti Quebecois and its takeover in 1976, takes off. In the late 1960s, Laurendeau-Dunton Commission obtained the mandate to investigate and report on the state of bilingualism and biculturalism in Canada . The Official Languages Act acted upon when it was adopted by Parliament in 1969. It proclaims the English and French as official languages of Canada. These are equal before the law and everyone has the right to receive services from the federal government and its Crown corporations in either language. The Commissioner of Official Languages will be the body responsible for the enforcement and promotion of both languages.
At the beginning of the 1970s, part of the independence movement is radicalized as the Front de Liberation du Quebec (FLQ). Terrorist acts are committed to bringing the October Crisis of 1970 and the intervention of the Government of Canada. A decade later, the referendum on sovereignty association in Quebec in the spring of 1980. The Prime Minister of Canada, Pierre Elliott Trudeau , promises to amend the Constitution of Canada during the referendum campaign on the condition that the majority of Quebecers vote against the secession of Quebec. The referendum will be effectively rejected by a majority of Quebecers.
Federation (since 1982)
At a special meeting in November 1981, the premiers and federal require the repatriation of the Constitution, provided that the amendment procedures there are now included. After a series of interprovincial negotiations, the premiers and federal governments meet in the night of 4 to 5 November 1981 to finalize the terms of the new Constitution. The province of Quebec is excluded from the negotiations. This period is metaphorically known thereafter as the Night of Long Knives in Canada. Despite the non-ratification of amendments by the Province of Quebec, it will be recognized by the United Nations as part of the federation. The Statute of Westminster in 1931 had made the right constitutional amendment for approval by the Crown and Parliament of the United Kingdom in order to avoid the unilateral withdrawal of Quebec from Confederation. However, some people argue that the imposition of the new Quebec constitution is illegitimate because the principle of sovereignty of member states of a confederation and thus, that the unanimity required for amending the Treaty on European Union . Canada repatriates its constitution nonetheless Great Britain April 17, 1982 through Act 1982 of Canada , under proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II. This act of British Parliament created a fully sovereign state, although the two countries still share the same monarch today. Thus, the Constitution of Canada now includes the 1982 Law on Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1982 , the Constitutional Act of 1867 , the Statute of Westminster of 1931, the laws of integrations of the provinces and other constitutional laws and decrees set Annex, various subsequent amendments as well as traditions and unwritten conventions recognized by the courts. The Constitutional Act of 1982 will introduce the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , the right of indigenous peoples and the principle of equalization. The political system will remain a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system under the provisions of the Constitution Act of 1867. Upon entry into force of the Constitutional Act of 1982, the shape of the state will, however, a confederation to a federation , giving way to a Canadian federalism. The terms " Canadian Confederation "and" Dominion of Canada "will however continue to be misused by some people to refer to Canada.
Following the 1995 referendum on Quebec secession, the "law of clarification" was tabled in the House of Commons by the federal government of Prime Minister Jean Chretien and is adopted by Parliament in 2000. This is in response to the "Reference re Secession of Quebec the Supreme Court of Canada in 1998. This law was primarily intended to define the bases for recognition of the sovereignty of a province by the Canada event of a future referendum victory for independence, including determining whether the issue would allow the people of this province to state clearly if it wants or not it ceases to be part of Canada and become an independent state . This law will, however, considered inadequate by members of the Quebec National Assembly, all political persuasions. Indeed, they create a counterweight in the same year by voting unanimously to "law on the exercise of fundamental rights and prerogatives of the people of Quebec and the Quebec State", which empowers the people (...) Quebec alone determines the procedures for the exercise of its right to choose the political regime and legal status of Quebec by a majority referendum.
The Quebec sovereignty movement
As a result of profound social and economic as well as the popular consciousness that occurred in Quebec during the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, many Quebeckers are starting to demand greater provincial autonomy in the political, and even full independence of Quebec. Having been forced into an agrarian society since the conquest of 1760, Quebec society begins to urbanize during this period. The quiet revolution is the forerunner of the modern state formed by the Quebec and Quebecers take to redefine themselves not as "French Canadians" (a term now obsolete and even pejorative for some in Quebec), but now in as "Qubcois", which consequently leads to the formation of a patriotic Quebecois rather than Canadian. Modern society will grow thanks to the welfare state and the development of Quebec businesses and typically, all while incorporating the strategic positions of government both federal and provincial levels. Although Jean Lesage is recognized as the father of Quebec nationalism , several historical events dating back to the days of New France, including the Patriots' Rebellion , show that Quebec nationalism is actually the fruit of French Canadian nationalism. In this spirit, Ren Lvesque founded the Sovereignty-Association Movement in 1967 and will support the merger of the movement the following year with the MNC to lead to the formation of the Parti Quebecois. Contrary to the party that favors democracy and a referendum to achieve independence, the Rally for national independence will in turn formed a separatist faction that would later be known as the Front de liberation du Quebec and disappear shortly after the October Crisis of 1970. Although several politicians, including Ren Lvesque, have regarded this speech as political interference, the speech by former French president, Charles de Gaulle in 1967 in Montreal, has ignited the crowd and gave a hand the sovereignty movement in Quebec with the international community, notably with his famous phrase: " Vive le Quebec libre! ".
In the 1960s, politicians pass a tower of strength with the abolition of the Legislative Council of Quebec. Unlike other Canadian provinces that have abolished theirs in the early decades of Confederation, Quebec in 1968 managed to break away from the upper house, a symbol of control of the legislative power given to French Canadians. This room was in response to the Legislative Councils of Lower Canada and the United Province of Canada. The Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec , however, remains even today the symbol of the British Monarchy in Quebec. In the legal framework of the Constitution Act of 1982, this institution can not, however, be abolished by a constitutional amendment by the unanimous agreement of the provincial legislatures and the federal Parliament, although the legitimacy of this law in Quebec is subject to debate.
In the first government formed by the Parti Quebecois in 1976, Premier Ren Lvesque is promoting the national motto: " I remember ", which had been engraved on the front of the Parliament Building in Quebec in 1883 by architect Eugne-tienne Tach. Over the years, the national currency will play an important role for many Quebecers in the design and development of patriotism and the Quebecois, recalling the history of French America , . Moreover, even today, some people do not recognize the legitimacy of Parliament and the federal government in the French-Canadian affairs. Besides Quebec never signed the Constitution Act of 1982. Cependant, bien que le respect de la culture canadienne-franaise soit d'intrt pour plusieurs francophones, le mouvement souverainiste cre une dichotomie dans l'idologie des francophones du Qubec et de ceux des autres provinces, bien que certains groupes, dont les Acadiens, possdent leurs propres institutions et symboles nationaux tels que la devise L'Union fait la force . Bien que la diaspora qubcoise soit apparue ds les annes 1840 en qute d'une scurit d'emploi, plusieurs Qubcois - anglophones et francophones - quittent le Qubec lors de la prise de pouvoir du Parti qubcois et de l'entre en vigueur de la Charte de la langue franaise. Ceux-ci migrent notamment aux tats-Unis ainsi que dans les provinces de l'Ontario et des Prairies. Cet exode suit le dmnagement du sige social de plusieurs grandes entreprises canadiennes-anglaises quittant entre autres le centre financier de la rue Saint-Jacques de Montral pour celui de la rue Bay de Toronto.
L'alination entre les deux principaux groupes linguistiques sur la question de la langue et sur les divergences sociales et culturelles est exacerbe par plusieurs vnements, dont la Crise de la conscription de 1944 la Deuxime Guerre mondiale, la crise d'Octobre de 1970 au cours de laquelle la loi martiale est dcrte par le premier ministre fdral - Pierre Elliott Trudeau - au Qubec , ainsi que l'chec des deux confrences constitutionnelles de l'ancien premier ministre du Canada - Brian Mulroney , savoir l' Accord du lac Meech de 1987 et l' Accord de Charlottetown de 1992. Ces dernires avaient pour but d'amener le Qubec ratifier la Constitution. Nonobstant le caractre sporadique de ces vnements, la personnalit possessive et vindicative du Canada anglais l'gard du Qubec , , ainsi que le phnomne du dnigrement systmatique du Qubec, ou , viendront quant eux ajouter leur grain de sel cette frustration continuelle , .
Un premier rfrendum en 1980 conclut que 59,6 % des lecteurs, dont une majorit d'lecteurs francophones, rejettent la proposition de souverainet-association , et un second rfrendum en 1995 dmontre que la souverainet est rejete 50,6 % des voix, bien qu'elle ait t soutenue par 60% des lecteurs francophones. Les rsultats du rfrendum de 1995 sont cependant contests par plusieurs souverainistes et fdralistes tant donn la faible marge sparant les deux camps. D'un ct, les souverainistes mentionnent les allgations que le gouvernement fdral aurait viol les lois lectorales du Qubec par l'entremise d' Option Canada. De l'autre ct, les fdralistes font tat des irrgularits au niveau du nombre lev de bulletins de vote rejets dans certains comts fortement opposs la souverainet, sans quoi les rsultats du rfrendum de 1995 auraient t moins serrs. Depuis 1995, l'appui la souverainet du Qubec a recul pour se rapprocher celui du rfrendum de 1980.
D'autre part, le mouvement souverainiste qubcois dfend continuellement sa position affirmant que la culture canadienne-franaise n'est pas considre sa juste valeur en politique canadienne tant donn une majorit nettement plus grande de Canadiens anglais, et ? Iven the historical events. In order to join forces and defend Quebec's interests on matters falling under federal jurisdiction and that, by working with its provincial counterpart - the Bloc Quebecois was founded in 1991 by former Prime Minister of Quebec Lucien Bouchard. This new separatist party entered the House of Commons in 1993 as the official opposition, and since then it has always raised more than a majority of seats allocated to Quebec. Primarily, it is a party that calls itself the Social Democratic and advocating the right to self-determination of peoples as declared by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson after the First World War, in respect of decolonization and is recognized in international law of the United Nations.
In addition, the discord between English Canadians and Quebecers lead the province of Quebec to do virtually no delegate its legislative powers to bodies of interprovincial collaboration, thus tending to create a completely separate company and thereby dissociating the most agreements and inter- could jeopardize the federal law of Quebec to pursue the culture and know-how French-Canadian political groups within which decisions are taken by majority vote. On the other hand, the purpose of promoting business French Canadian, Quebec has taken advantage of its special geopolitical position where he is the only state in the predominantly French-speaking North America, unlike in other provinces and United States, which are often embedded and related to the mass of English-speaking and circumscribing the territory which is often almost indefinable. Similarly an independent country, it is not uncommon for Quebec politicians stand in defense of minorities in other provinces . In this strategy, the independence of Quebec is seen as a matter of fact when a referendum is an administrative formality. Therefore, an elected government of Quebec sovereignty, including the Parti Quebecois, will be increased to create institutions and policies (Constitution, citizenship, political independence, regional, etc..) Meeting that vision of Quebec's future while preserving the mind the Canadian constitutional requirements.
In spring 2006 the new Conservative government of Canada signed an agreement with the Government of Quebec to the province joining the ranks of UNESCO as an associate member. In doing so, asymmetrical federalism is now present in federal politics. Furthermore, 27 November 2006, the House of Commons of Canada voted overwhelmingly in favor of a motion recognizing that "Quebecers form a nation within a united Canada", a move largely symbolic but is a major step forward in consolidating the sense of the special status of French-speaking province. In English Canada, critics have blended, many fearing that gives new weapons to separatists in Quebec.
Canadian uniqueness
Since the late nineteenth century, Native Americans are parked and left to themselves by the federal government on reserves where they have some form of autonomy, the latter being still under the control of federal power. These reserves offer virtually no public services and are imbued with the marginalization of indigenous peoples. In consequence of this situation and often several treaties signed under the influence of the stress of the British army, various clashes still occur today regarding land claims and respect the place of Aboriginal peoples within Canada. These governmental disputes with indigenous peoples sometimes degenerate into open conflict, especially during the Oka Crisis in 1990, the Ipperwash Crisis in 1995, most recently the crisis Kanesatake from 2004 to 2005 and the Crisis of Caledonia in 2006. The recognition of aboriginal rights (or treaty) with respect to land claims was affirmed in the Constitution Act 1982. Moreover, since the 1990s, Canada witnessed a major crisis in the smuggling of tobacco products, in addition to a large traffic in firearms and narcotics transiting including the reserve of Akwesasne , which straddles the Canada-US border. While these issues appear to be very sensitive for politicians, governments have often been accused of laxity in the media and the public .
Economic integration with the United States is increasing after 1940. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994 is a high point in the development of economic integration between the two countries. However, the conflict timber remains a political and trade since the late 1980's. In addition, the Canadian economy is growing continuously thanks to the sectors of real estate and mining and natural resources as well as oil reserves in the Athabasca oil sands, although it was affected by downward the Asian economic crisis of 1997-1998, the 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States and the loss in value of technology stocks in 2002. Canada was the host of the Summit of the Americas in 2001, which was held in Quebec City, to provide for provisions for a possible Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA).
On the other hand, since the 1980s, Canadians are concerned about their cultural autonomy as companies, television and American films are omnipresent. However, contrasting with the rest of North America, provinces in Canada are aligned towards a universal system of health care. In addition, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms obliges courts to the conservation of multiculturalism in their judgments.
Canada participates in the Gulf War of 1990-1991 and the peacekeeping missions of the United Nations in former Yugoslavia and Rwanda in the 1990s. Since 2001, Canada is actively involved in the Afghanistan war in the Western coalition formed after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 perpetrated by a faction Islamic Taliban in the United States. As a result, Canada officially entered the war against terrorism as an ally of the United States, but to restrict the military campaign in Afghanistan.
Since the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by Canada in 2002 in compliance with the Convention United Nations Framework on Climate Change , opponents such as the current government of Canada, trying to remove the country from the agreement, considering the goals that are too idealistic and unachievable , . Conversely, the current government attempts to align with the Economic Cooperation Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) giving precedence to the Asia-Pacific reached by members of the Association of Southeast Asian East Nations (ASEAN) , .
In another vein, a popular phenomenon invites a number of Canadians to their migration in the southern states of the United States such as Arizona and Florida, the Caribbean and Oceania as well as the Vancouver Island where the winters are generally milder. This phenomenon extends to any category without age restriction although it is present especially among retirees. These people are called the Snowbirds spend the winter, usually six months, and returned to Canada in the summer to keep their legal residence status. The Canadian presence is particularly noticeable with Quebecers in Florida as financial institutions have settled in Quebec over Quebec newspapers are delivered each morning in some areas "Qubec" in Florida, as in Hallandale Beach Pompano Beach, Lauderhill, Fort Lauderdale, Fort Myers and Key West. Since the first half of the twentieth century, economic relations and business development have expanded and are now present throughout the year. It contains more hundreds of thousands of properties in Quebec. In addition, a strong presence of Quebecers can be noticed in Maine, Old Orchard Beach and Ogunquit, during the summer holidays.
Parliament and Government
State Plan
Canada is a constitutional monarchy which recognizes Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Canada since her coronation on 6 February 1952. In his capacity as representative of the Queen, Head of State, His Excellency the Right Honourable David Lloyd Johnston , Governor-General since October 1, 2010 and as Commander in Chief of the Canadian Forces , took the royal prerogatives when the queen does is not in Canada. The Governor General is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister. Rideau Hall is the principal residence of Ottawa as the Citadelle in Quebec City is his home. In fact the post of Governor General is largely symbolic and has no real power. In recent years a debate remains as to whether the post of governor general and the lieutenant governor should be abolished.
In addition, Canada is a parliamentary federal democracy with a tradition inherited from the English democracy of XVI century. The legislative branch consists of Parliament, which includes the Queen (in his absence the Governor General of Canada ), the Senate and the House of Commons . The representation of the legislative branch is made by the Parliament Hill , where are all the Parliament buildings.
Executive power is in turn composed of the Privy Council , to advise the Governor General in Council in its decision making. Private consultants appointed by the Governor General in Council, including counselors are sworn to form the cabinet , headed by the Prime Minister. Cabinet members are the only private counselors are authorized to act officially by decree on behalf of the Governor General in Council and are responsible for a department.
Although the Governor General retains certain royal prerogatives, duties and obligations are defined by the Constitution of Canada , which consists of a series of constitutional laws entangled, they are composed of texts and traditions and unwritten conventions. The Constitution includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees Canadians the rights and freedoms set forth therein, and which can not be infringed by any level of government in Canada. "They can not be restricted by a rule of law, within limits that are reasonable and demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society" (From the first article of the Charter). In addition, notwithstanding clause grants the federal Parliament and the provincial legislatures the power to legislate at all times and to the extent agreed by legislators, overriding some temporary provisions of the Charter - in the fundamental freedoms, the guarantees legal or equality rights - for a period of five years.
The post of Prime Minister , Head of the Government of Canada, remains de facto leader of the party whose representation in the House of Commons is the largest, which can lead to situations where the government party may be a majority minority as. The Prime Minister then selects the members of the cabinet. Ministerial appointments are made by the Governor General in Council on the recommendations of the Prime Minister, the latter being usually well respected de facto de jure they may be rejected. Cabinet members usually come from the political party of Prime Minister and strong majority of members of the House of Commons, although some may also come from the Senate, or even in rare cases, not be part of any House of Parliament. Although there is no written text to that effect, and as tradition dictates the Governor General to appoint as Prime Minister the leader of the political majority in the elected House of Commons and the offices of private consultants and Ministers of the people he approves the nomination, some lawyers argue that today, this provision constitutionally unites the Governor General.
Oaths, elections and appointments
Before taking office, the Prime Minister of Canada and all members of his cabinet were sworn in by Governor General in Council, first as private consultants in the Queen's Privy Council for Canada , and then as members of Cabinet. The Prime Minister has many powers, particularly over the appointment of officials within the Government and public administration. Tradition has it that the words " Right Honourable "accompanies the name of the Prime Minister. The Right Honourable Stephen Harper, leader of the Conservative Party of Canada , has been Prime Minister since February 6, 2006.
Each minister is responsible for its respective departments. Thus, each minister is responsible for the appointment of officials within the department whose deputy minister. This is the highest administrative authority of unelected ministry. Its role is to advise and report on activities of the department to the minister.
The House of Commons of Canada is composed of deputies elected by FPTP in one round in each electoral district (formerly called "counties"). General elections are called by the Governor General in Council after it has dissolved the House of Commons under recommendation, either:
- voluntary and strategic Prime Minister;
- the term of office of four years;
- following a vote of confidence not favorable to the government in place by the MPs.
Members of the Senate , whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the Prime Minister and formally appointed by the Governor General in Council to serve until the age of 75 years.
Functioning of Parliament
Following the 2008 Canadian federal election , held October 14, 2008, the four political parties in Canada are currently sitting in Parliament, in descending order of representation in the House of Commons: Conservative Party of Canada (PCC), the Liberal Party of Canada (DFC), the Bloc Quebecois (BQ) and the New Democratic Party of Canada (NDP), without counting the independent members Andr Arthur and Bill Casey in the constituencies of Portneuf- Jacques-Cartier and Cumberland-Colchester-Musquodoboit Valley. Although several other parties are not represented in Parliament, the list of historical parties with substantial representation (see Canadian political parties ).
The chairman of the House of Commons is responsible for the direction of Parliamentary Affairs of the House. To ensure the smooth running of the House, the impartial interpretation of the rules and the rights and privileges of all members. Sitting in the center of the House with deputy clerks, deputy clerks and law clerks, the Clerk of the House of Commons is the President and is responsible for impartially advise the Speaker and Members on the interpretation of rules, Practice and case law from Parliament. He is also responsible for recording the decisions and debates of the House in the Hansard and send publications to the Gazette official. The Sergeant at Arms attending on him the Clerk of the House of Commons in his role as head of the precinct, particularly in ceremonial functions such as the ceremonial of the mass at the beginning and end of each session, in safety and maintenance of the Parliament Buildings.
The Senate operates much the same way that the House of Commons. However, as the upper house of Parliament, the representation of authority is no longer present. As a member of the internal service of the royal house, the Black Rod acts as a personal servant of the Queen and serves as a parliamentary messenger to summon MPs to the throne speech and ceremony of Royal Assent. He is responsible for detailed protocol, logistical and administrative surrounding all national events, such as openings of Parliament, the inauguration of Governor-General, state funerals and receiving foreign dignitaries and officials from the Governor General.
In exercising their duties, parliamentarians are supported by the Library of Parliament, which provides legal information objectives, budget and estimate costs.
In terms of ministerial responsibility, the Cabinet members are accountable for their departments' activities during a period of oral questions and answers for each workday of the House of Commons. Thus, a time of day is allocated to all members of the government, to the extent possible, sit in the House to answer questions from the Opposition and other opposition parties.
A similar period exists in the Senate, where members of the opposition questioning the parliamentary leader of the Government.
At the opening of each parliamentary session (two per year), the Governor General in Council, delivered the Speech from the Throne to even the Throne Room, the Senate chamber. This speech provides an outline of government intervention throughout the session. This speech is then passed to a vote by members and, in general, subject to a confidence motion. This motion has the effect of inducing the quality of the vote to topple the government if the vote is negative. In this situation, the Governor General in Council shall dissolve the House of Commons and call a general election. If the vote is positive, the government may implement these guidelines.
In addition to the legislative work done in the House, Senate committees and various Commons committees exist to further studies. These committees allow MPs and senators to meet and interview (in a formal setting) experts or groups of citizens can make an opinion on the topic discussed. These committees then file their reports to the House and Senate for further consideration. Except, as the budget vote, the approval of both legislative chambers is necessary for the Governor General in Council endorse the creation, modification or repeal of a law.
Functioning of government and public service
As Canada is a parliamentary monarchy, the Governor General is the Head of the Executive in the absence of the Queen. However, over the years its role has evolved and full of unwritten agreements that have lost the power he once held. Although today his role is apolitical and purely symbolic and ceremonial, the Governor General is still supported by the Office of the Secretary to the Governor General to accomplish its mandate and .
The Queen's Privy Council for Canada was established by the Constitutional Act of 1867 to assist and advise the Governor General in Council in the administration of government. He is the principal organ of executive power after the Crown. Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs has traditionally been the President of the Privy Council. In addition to the nominees of the Minister, the Prime Minister may recommend the appointment of other people as personal advisors such as VIPs, former members of government or people simply honorary. The Privy Council . Thus, the last time that the Privy Council has met all its members was in 1981 to formally consent to the royal wedding of Prince Charles , Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer. Following the announcement of the betrothal of Prince Duchess of Cornwall , Camilla Parker Bowles in 2005, the Ministry of Justice of Canada announced that the Privy Council did not meet because the marriage does not result in offspring and therefore, would not affect the order of succession to the Crown in Canada. According to David Brown, head of the Privy Council Office in 1981, when the Privy Council had rejected the marriage of 1981, there were divisions in the royal lineage as well as other member countries of the Commonwealth. Therefore, no descendant of Prince of Wales would have been recognized as legitimate successor to the throne. This situation would have led Canada to create its own monarchy or change its plan for the state of a republic .
The government is composed of the cabinet, the executive body of the Privy Council which is headed by the Prime Minister. In these tasks, it is supported by the Privy Council Office. At its head is the Clerk of the Privy Council, the highest official of the Government of Canada apolitical. As Secretary of the Cabinet, the Privy Council plays a central role in managing the state and to advise impartially and support the Prime Minister and Cabinet, and lead the public service.
The Government of Canada is also assisted by the Treasury Board cabinet committee composed of the President of Treasury Board and Cabinet. The Treasury is responsible for accountability and ethics, financial management, Personnel and administration, the control function as well as approving regulations and most Orders in Council . Thus, as the Privy Council Office, Treasury Board plays a central role in the management of the state, but is a political body whose members are elected contrary to the latter. The Treasury Board is directly accountable to Parliament.
While each department is responsible for its respective portfolios, three departments play a central role in the management of public finances of the State and thus supports the work of the Treasury Board and other departments. Thus, the Ministry of Finance is responsible for all matters relating to public finance that are not by law assigned to the Treasury Board, as the establishment of the federal budget and economic and financial policy of the country. The Canada Revenue Agency is responsible for its enforcement of tax laws. While the Department of Public Works and Government Services is a shared services organization to help departments implement their programs. The minister of that ministry is traditionally the Receiver General of Canada and thus responsible for the issuance and receipt of all payments made and received by the government and responsible for the preparation and publication of public accounts.
Other organizations exist in the central management and control of the state, but they report directly to Parliament and are thus independent of government. Such is the case of the Office of the Ethics Commissioner, the Auditor General and the Commissioner of Official Languages.
Provincial Legislatures
Each province is a full-fledged state with a parliamentary system also. The system consists of the executive, the cabinet headed by the premier , and a legislative chamber the legislatures of the provinces and territories of Canada. A lieutenant governor acts as the Queen's representative at the provincial level and has the powers of head of state in the province.
The legislature of each province is composed of deputies elected by FPTP in one round in each of the provincial electoral districts (different federal districts, with the exception of Ontario where the provincial constituencies coincide with the federal ridings since 1999). All provincial legislatures have a unicameral , with a single legislative chamber.
The parliamentary and democratic system of a province is the default one defined in the Constitution Act 1867, namely a system similar to the federal Parliament. However, every legislature has the power to create its own provincial constitution. Nowadays, only the province of British Columbia has a provincial constitution. However, Quebec has laws and quasi-constitutional as the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the Charter of the French language.
Functioning of the federation
The Constitution guarantees a division of legislative powers between Parliament and provincial legislatures. Each level has supreme authority over their respective powers although both have equal competence in matters of immigration and agriculture. To enforce this division of jurisdictions, several debates often result in the Supreme Court. Over the years, it emerged that the provinces have significantly more power than the federal government to the point where the provinces have the power to influence indirectly the impact of some federal powers within the limits of their territory. Such is the case for regulation of trade and commerce (federal) and licensing of practice and business practice (provincial) or development contract (provincial). Thus, in this example, the principles of free market promoted by the federal government may be undermined by provincial policy.
Le ministre des Affaires intergouvernementales est un organisme du Bureau du Conseil priv et, est responsable des affaires parlementaires touchant les relations fdrales-provinciales-territoriales telles que le fdralisme fiscal, l'volution de la fdration et l'unit canadienne.
Dans un but de dveloppement de la fdration, les provinces, avec la participation des territoires, ont cr le Conseil de la fdration en 2003. Bien que cette organisation n'ait pas t institutionnalise, elle permet aux provinces et territoires de consolider leurs forces et de travailler en collaboration sur tous sujets tombant dans leur juridiction lgislative en favorisant entre autres les changes interprovinciaux. De plus, elle permet aux provinces et territoires de faire front commun lorsque vient le temps de ngocier avec le gouvernement fdral, notamment en matire de prquation et de dveloppement de projets ncessitant la coopration du gouvernement fdral.
Systme juridique et droit
Tribunaux
La judicature du Canada est dfinie dans la . Elle joue un rle important dans l'interprtation des lois, et possde le pouvoir d'invalider les lois qui transgressent la Constitution. Tous les tribunaux provinciaux et fdraux sont organiss en une seule pyramide quatre niveaux. La Cour suprme du Canada , constitue en 1875, est la plus haute instance judiciaire du pays, et en l'occurrence, une cour de dernier ressort nationale. Elle a (...) comptence sur des litiges relevant de tous les domaines du droit , chapeautant la Cour d'appel fdrale ainsi que toutes les cours d'appel provinciales. Sous ces tribunaux viennent la Cour fdrale, la Cour canadienne de l'impt ainsi que les cours suprieures de comptence gnrale des provinces et des territoires. Puis au bas de la pyramide viennent les cours typiquement dcrites comme des cours provinciales. Bien que ne faisant pas officiellement partie du systme judiciaire canadien, du fait qu'ils ne sont pas officiellement des cours de justice, les tribunaux administratifs sont partie intgrante du systme cr au Canada par le gouvernement pour rsoudre les litiges , entre autres en matire de relations de travail.
D'autre part, le mandat de la judicature est de pourvoir la primaut du droit de faon impartiale et accessible tous ; la primaut du droit tant assure grce l'indpendance de la magistrature face aux institutions politiques .
La trs honorable Beverley McLachlin , juge en chef du Canada, de mme que les huit autres juges puns de la Cour suprme , sont asserments par le gouverneur gnral en conseil sous l'avis du Premier ministre. Tous les juges des cours d'appel, provinciales et fdrale, et des cours suprieures sont aussi asserments de la mme manire, sous l'avis du Premier ministre et du ministre de la Justice, aprs consultation avec les organismes non gouvernementaux. Le Cabinet fdral nomme les magistrats des cours suprieures aux niveaux provincial et territorial. Les postes des tribunaux du bas de la pyramide judiciaire, aux niveaux provincial et territorial, sont combls par les gouvernements respectifs.
Droit positif
Droit constitutionnel
Le fondement lgal du Canada repose dans la Constitution du Canada. Celle-ci est compose de textes crits, de traditions et de conventions non crites dont les origines proviennent du droit anglais, et dont la pertinence au sein du droit canadien est de nos jours confirme par la jurisprudence grce au premier paragraphe du prambule de la loi constitutionnelle de 1867 :
Considrant que les provinces du Canada, de la Nouvelle-cosse et du Nouveau-Brunswick ont exprim le dsir de contracter une Union Fdrale pour ne former qu'une seule et mme Puissance (Dominion) sous la couronne du Royaume-Uni de la Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande, avec une constitution reposant sur les mmes principes que celle du Royaume-Uni . "
Cependant, la Proclamation royale de 1763 est le point de dpart du droit canadien pour tous sujets en litige, tels que les conflits frontaliers des provinces. Par suite de la cession du territoire par la France, la proclamation a impos au Canada toutes lois en vigueur en 1763 au Royaume-Uni et a amen avec elle tous les droits dtenus par les Anglais dans l'Empire britannique. Encore aujourd'hui, plusieurs lois ou traditions britanniques en vigueur en 1763 font partie intgrante du contexte lgal canadien. Par exemple, plusieurs institutions politiques existantes de nos jours, telles que les Assembles lgislatives, trouvent leur source dans des traditions en vigueur au XVIII e sicle au Royaume-Uni et dans l'ensemble de l'Empire britannique. Ces lois et traditions britanniques n'ont, pour la plupart, de reprsentation crite dans le droit canadien que la jurisprudence des tribunaux. De plus, la de 1215 et la Dclaration des droits ( ) de 1689 octroient certains droits fondamentaux aux Canadiens, dont la libert d'expression, la libert de presse, le droit de vote et le principe de l' . Les droits de tout homme et femme canadien sont par ailleurs repris et confirms par crit dans la Charte canadienne des droits et liberts , cre en 1982. Par consquent, en plus des droits noncs par crit dans les textes constitutionnels, il existe une thorie judiciaire en jurisprudence canadienne qui fait intervenir des droits intrinsques la Constitution afin de reconnatre les lois et traditions existantes lors de l'entre en vigueur de la loi constitutionnelle de 1867 et mme avant, de la Proclamation royale en 1763. Cette thorie est mieux connue sous le nom de Charte des droits implicite. Elle a prsance tant et aussi longtemps qu'elle n'est pas contredite par des dispositions crites de la Constitution mme, par une loi du Parlement ou d'une lgislature provinciale, ou par des conventions non crites.
Le droit positif canadien est ainsi compos de quatre grandes sphres: la lgislation, la jurisprudence , la doctrine et la tradition. Le bijuridisme est un trait particulier du droit canadien. En effet, la est l'unique loi civile au Canada - comme dans la plupart des pays anglo-saxons, sauf dans les comptences lgislatives du Qubec o la prsance est donne exclusivement au Code civil du Qubec. Cependant, seuls les principes de la rgissent la Constitution. Par consquent, les dispositions constitutionnelles sont muables et constamment en modification jour aprs jour. Autrement dit, les crits constitutionnels ne forment que des points de dpart auxquels les classes mdiatiques, politiques et sociales se rattachent pour ensuite influencer les comportements populaires de faon conserver ou modifier la Constitution par voie de conventions non crites. De cette faon, ses principes s'appliquent, par exemple, aux comptences lgislatives provinciales pour que celles-ci demeurent aux provinces ou soient transfres au Parlement fdral, ou l'inverse pour que des comptences lgislatives fdrales soient conserver par le Parlement fdral ou transfres aux lgislatures provinciales.
La Constitution du Canada inclut donc aujourd'hui la loi de 1982 sur le Canada , la loi constitutionnelle de 1867 , la loi constitutionnelle de 1982 et ses annexes, les amendements subsquents la loi constitutionnelle de 1982, les jugements de la Cour suprme du Canada ainsi que les conventions non crites. Par exemple, en matire de conventions non crites, bien que le gouverneur gnral possde des pouvoirs qui lui sont confrs par les textes crits de la loi constitutionnelle de 1867, les conventions non crites se sont imposes au fil des annes pour lui retirer le pouvoir dtenu autrefois. Cependant, le gouverneur gnral pourrait reprendre son autorit d'antan si les politiques gouvernementales, par exemple, omettaient de l'empcher d'imposer de nouvelles traditions ou de revenir aux anciennes traditions. Son pouvoir pourrait mme dpasser les crits constitutionnels si la population canadienne ou la classe politique l'en autorisait, volontairement ou non, par voie de traditions et de conventions non crites. Ainsi, les pressions mdiatiques, politiques et sociales - devant les tribunaux ou non - sont ncessaires en tout temps pour conserver ou modifier toute disposition crite ou non de la Constitution.
Les lois civiles du Canada sont issues des lois civiles britanniques puis ont t adaptes au fil du temps au contexte socio-culturel et gopolitique du Canada. Exception faite des comptences lgislatives du Qubec, la est le systme de droit civil qui prvaut dans les comptences lgislatives provinciales de l'ensemble des provinces et territoires du Canada. La s'applique toutefois toutes les provinces et territoires en matire de droit constitutionnel et de comptences lgislatives fdrales. ne se traduit pas en franais. Bien que certaines personnes soit portes parler de droit coutumier, la est plus qu'un systme de droit coutumier, c'est aussi un systme de droit jurisprudentiel, de droit lgislatif et de droit populaire. Ainsi, on parle de droit jurisprudentiel lorsque les normes lgales sont promulgues par arrts des tribunaux, de droit lgislatif lorsque les lois sont dictes par le Parlement fdral ou les lgislatures provinciales et de droit populaire lorsque les normes lgales ont pour source le peuple (les citoyens). Dans le droit populaire, l'on parle de conventions non-crites pour dfinir les normes manant du peuple.
Dans le systme de , le droit coutumier sert chacun des groupes ci-haut mentionn pour acqurir de l'autorit sur certaines matires, ou en perdre, dpendamment de la tradition ou de la coutume tablie au fil du temps. Cette tradition, ou coutume, se dfinit par un comportement ou une omission rpte pendant une priode de temps. Par exemple, une lgislature provinciale pourrait dtenir l'autorit sur certaines dispositions de la scurit routire et ainsi tablir une loi qui interdit de tourner gauche sur les feux rouges, mais si l'autorit responsable (les forces policires) ne prend pas les mesures appropries pour l'application de cette loi et que son omission provoque la cration d'une coutume o les conducteurs tournent gauche sur les feux rouges malgr l'interdiction lgislative, cette coutume risque de prendre le dessus sur la lgislation et ainsi devenir une convention non-crite qui la rend la loi de la lgislature invalide. Le droit populaire s'tant impos, toutes interventions futures des forces policires pour faire respecter la lgislation deviendraient illgales. L'influence mdiatique et la propagande devie ndraient the only valid ways to change this habit in order to obtain the approval of enough people, if any. Therefore, it is noted that the custom may be national, provincial, regional, local and even individual - an individual can create his own law. Thus, in the example above, turn left on red lights is of a current in the Greater Toronto if the shift takes place when the oncoming traffic prevents the first three cars turn left on a green or yellow, although the law forbids it.
Sometimes, in situations of greater scope, governments are grappling with the obligation to maintain or gauge public opinion in accordance with their ideology, because it serves as a legal justification for some of their actions or inactions. Such is the case, for example, on issues of recognition of Quebec as a nation or the rights of francophone minorities outside Quebec.
Finally, in a common law system, each player generally tries to maintain his power while gaining or regaining a statutory authority or constitutional through tradition and unwritten conventions. Therefore, influence, pressure, manipulation and propaganda are the means used in the public, media and political bodies to achieve these goals. The latter can be achieved in particular by attempting to:
- break the conventions which are perceived as contrary to the interests of each;
- prevent some groups or individuals to impose customs that may be inappropriate for the interests of those persons;
- and create its own authority or impose its own ideology.
Equity and Procedure
In addition to the existing common law principles of equity. While the common law develops legal norms, equity is a set of principles for Canadian courts to provide for the application of legal standards. Instruments such as writs of evocation, bonds, decrees, orders, injunctions and contempt of court are used by courts to make their judgments effective. Thus, it is possible for courts to establish a form of natural justice that goes beyond the penalties imposed by law, such damages or imprisonment. In the interests of justice and fairness, courts invoke the presumption of innocence of the defendant and therefore, the principles by which each of the opposing parties must be treated fairly until proven guilt of the defendant. For example, assuming his innocence, the suspect in a murder may be freed on bail pending his trial and promised to appear on schedule to guarantee not to leave the country or region. A court might also, for example, issue a temporary injunction preventing the plaintiff from using a legal right that if the court's decision was favorable to the defendant, rendered ineffective the ruling.
Also in the interests of justice and fairness, the penalties imposed on a guilty stated may be reduced or increased by a court after an evaluation of the causes and reducing distressing. For example, the offender told an offense could have his sentence reduced substantially by a court in consideration of media coverage that has been inflicted. Conversely, his sentence could be increased significantly in the situation where the offender shows no obvious signs of remorse.
The principles of equity exist in all provinces and territories of Canada and apply equally to constitutional law as federal and provincial legislative powers. However, having regard to the civil law of Quebec, we speak of civil procedure and criminal procedure in areas of Quebec's jurisdiction. The National Assembly of Quebec, however, repeats the same principles of equity, but the setting and marking out the writing in the Code of Civil Procedure and the Code of Penal Procedure of Quebec. Unlike the equity following the change rules of common law, the procedures can be modified by the National Assembly of Quebec.
Joint Civil Law
Unlike the rest of Canada, Quebec is unique in the sense that all civil law is written. Therefore, only a change in compliance with existing laws by legislators is needed. The ultimate authority belongs to the Quebec National Assembly , within the limits of its legislative powers. However, for federal legislation, only those common law principles apply. Thus, all laws of the Quebec National Assembly shall prevail at all times, as long as they follow the constitutional rules and they are not changed by legislators. However, the Civil Code of Quebec and other provincial laws may delegate to courts the role of creating a case law, both customary and popular, first and foremost, framed by the legislation. This type of law is a legal system mixed almost unique in the world alongside the Scottish law and that of Louisiana.
Case law and customary law in Quebec is very far to legislate and regulate certain industries under the corporatist system , particularly the professions, namely medicine, law, notaries, accounting and financial planning. It is true, for example, when lawmakers insert into legislation provisions which emphasize the reasonableness or relevance of an action, without necessarily giving more details. The courts are thus called to make laws on these points at issue in judging the reasonableness or appropriateness according to the customs of the respective industries. In many contexts, principles of case law, both customary and popular also apply to all citizens. For example, courts are required to establish the rights of personality in addition to those contained in the Civil Code and to establish the circumstances constituting harm to reputation.
This mixed system has the effect of including some close legal loopholes that legislators would not have thought, and this, in addition to allowing the law to adapt more quickly to changes in society. It encourages more rapid innovation practices under the consultation of experts from the industries concerned.
In other words, the codification of the laws of Quebec incorporates the principles of common law by allowing the people to establish its own fundamental principles of justice through the "law of the nation" (Law of the Land), a principle described in the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Custom of Paris of New France. For example, in civil liability, the first paragraph of Article 1457 of the Civil Code states that any person has the duty to respect the rules of conduct that, depending on the circumstances, usage or law, it is subject so as not to cause harm to others. The whole nation is thus required to establish democratically within its population diverse socio-cultural norms which are in fact a legal value over time. Thus, according to the socio-cultural norms in force, this single sentence of Civil Code legislates on matters such as embezzlement, abuse of power, bullying, assistance to others, the disclosure of information, changing laws by legislators, etc..
Therefore, unlike the provinces of pure common law, no system of law and customary law is popular in Quebec legislative powers except those established by statute law. However, to become law, the jurisprudence of the courts shall have exclusive jurisdiction, within the law to recognize the "law of the nation" and the applicable laws.
Criminal law and other federal laws
Criminal laws are solely under federal jurisdiction, and therefore uniform across Canada. These are fully consolidated in the Criminal Code of Canada. Only the principles of common law applicable to criminal law and other federal statutes across Canada, even in Quebec. Thus, the popular authority extends to all Canadian citizens, not just one province or region.
In the case of criminal laws, only the cultural norms of Canada define whether conduct or omission is criminal. This designation is mainly based on the assignment of well-being of society. Although the criminal laws are represented in the Criminal Code of Canada, the right people (the mentality of citizens) now has full authority over all criminal matters. Thus, for Parliament to effect a change in the Criminal Code of Canada, the mindset of citizens must comply with the amendments. A change of mentality among the population is therefore imperative that Parliament can make any amendment in any legitimacy. However, the popular mentality has become law if the criminal code has previously been amended accordingly by the legislators. The media influence, pressure and propaganda are the means used across Canada in the population on issues such as abortion, euthanasia, prostitution and the death penalty.
As for the application of criminal laws, the power is held by law (the police), jurisprudence (the courts) and population (citizens). Thus, the police are responsible for investigating and maintaining order and peace while the courts provide for the establishment of equitable or procedure, if any. Moreover, within the legal limits established by the common law, any citizen has the power to arrest, detention and termination of any suspect to any crime. For example, an individual committing a robbery at a convenience store employee could be prosecuted and arrested a third person witnessed the crime and then be held by it until the police arrived.
Judicial System
The application of Canadian law , including criminal skills course, is a provincial jurisdiction, but in most provinces, this application is contracted to the Federal Police, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). Only Ontario, Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador inherently have a provincial police force, respectively, the Ontario Provincial Police , the Surete du Quebec and the Police Royal Newfoundland Constabulary. The RCMP will apply only to federal laws on their territory, and only the criminal laws of a wide national and even international, such as organized crime, national and border security, youth, indigenous communities and financial integrity. However, in Newfoundland and Labrador, she is also responsible for enforcing provincial laws, but only outside the urban centers of the province.
Some municipalities have their own police force which it is responsible for the bylaw in its judicial district. For municipalities, regions, counties ... with no police force, police services are contracted out to either the RCMP or, in the case of Ontario and Quebec, their respective provincial police.
In terms of reserves, each subject has its own police force mandated by the federal government and having jurisdiction over the whole territory of the reserve. These officers are commonly called the Peacekeepers.
Unit of Military Police is itself the force responsible for order and peace in the Canadian Forces. The National Investigation Service Canadian Forces is responsible for its investigations. The army may in turn be deployed within the population when the states of crisis or emergency is in force. For example, during the ice storm in 1998 in southern Quebec, the Canadian Forces have been used for relief operations and support to those affected.
The Border Services Agency is in turn the organization responsible for civil protection at the border of Canada. The Coast Guard is working with the RCMP and the Canada Border Services Agency to ensure public safety at sea and protection of civil maritime borders. The Canadian Security Intelligence Service security is the agency responsible for intelligence-depth investigations of national or international, to ensure emergency preparedness in Canada.
Foreign Affairs
Trade Relations
Canada maintains a leading relationship with the United States, with which it shares the longest undefended border in the world, where border economic exchanges across borders are among the largest in the world. This economic cooperation established at several levels between Canada and the United States, allows the most important economic relations of the Free Trade Agreement North American. Canada also shares a long relationship with the United Kingdom and recently fed, mostly across Quebec, a special relationship with France. Britain and France are the two European colonial powers most significant of its founding. These relationships also extend to other former members of British and French empires, through the Commonwealth and La Francophonie.
Among the many economic and fruitful collaborations include joint work between Bombardier and Alstom (France) in the field of manufacturing of transport equipment in common that allowed the establishment of the first TGV on American soil in the hallway Washington - Boston. More recently, Hydro-Quebec signed an agreement enabling the implementation of its new research by industry Heuliez and Dassault for the manufacture of an electric car very promising.
The people Inuit of Canada has also formed an alliance with other nations bordering the Arctic Inuit.
International Co-operation and Development
Canada has shown regularly in Africa through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).
During the last sixty years, Canada has been a champion of multilateralism, making efforts to resolve international conflicts in cooperation with other nations. This is clearly demonstrated during the Suez Crisis in 1956 when former Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson , then Minister of Foreign Affairs, eases tensions by proposing interventions peacekeeping and sending the Force peacekeeping UN. In this spirit, Canada developed and tried to maintain a leadership role in UN interventions. Canada has participated in 50 missions in this way, each participating UN operation until 1989. Canada's contributions to the program of peacekeeping the UN diminished during the first years of XXI century. It is besides Canada plays a significant role at the Organization of International Civil Aviation which is headquartered in Montreal. In addition, Canada was represented since 1 July 2004 to the year 2008 by Ms. Louise Arbour, a native of Quebec, for the post of High Commissioner for Human Rights of man.
Armed conflicts, peacekeeping missions and relief operations
Founding member of the Organization-Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) , Canada has adopted a defensive army without nuclear weapons. It currently employs about 75,000 military standing in the Canadian Forces , and 30,000 in the reserve forces. The Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the army, navy and air force. Much of the equipment deployed forces include 1,500 armored combat vehicles, 34 combat ships, aircraft and 861 aircraft.
In addition to major participation in the Boer War , the First World War , the Second World War and the Korean War , Canada maintains substantial interests in international missions under UN command and the ' NATO since 1950, including missions of peacekeeping, various missions in former Yugoslavia , and support for Coalition Forces during the First Gulf War. Since 2001, Canada has troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the Stabilization Force U.S. and ISAF security, NATO-led and authorized by the UN. The Team Response Team (DART) has participated in three major relief operations after the December 2004 tsunami in South-East, after Hurricane Katrina in September 2005 on U.S. shores after the quake land of Kashmir in October 2005 and that of Haiti in January 2010.
Sovereignty and borders of the territory
Canada and the United States are partners on the proposed Aerospace Defense Command North American Command (NORAD), which aims to defend the air sovereignty of North America since 1957 in administering the flight plans commercial and private. In addition, Canada has been approached by several years the U.S. government to implement their proposed missile shield to defend North America against attack from ballistic missiles.
Although the Government of Canada constantly says his authority throughout the territory, some areas are not universally recognized by the international community as being under the sovereignty of Canada. Although the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea provides the basis for recognition of the independence of countries in the waters surrounding their territory, the interpretation of this convention is different between Canada and other countries. For example, although the exclusive economic zone is respected, some states consider the waters around the archipelago in the Arctic region, which form the Northwest Passage , as free passage for all. In addition, the United States asserts that Canada is acting against the agreement on the part of the Beaufort Sea and Arctic Ocean that extends to the geographic North Pole. A similar conflict existed until 1992 between Canada and France on the exclusive economic zone surrounding the archipelago Saint Pierre and Miquelon.
Some plots of land are also challenged by the neighboring countries of Canada. Although the maritime boundary of the Baffin Bay between Canada and Greenland has been defined by agreement with Denmark, both countries still argue today the Hans Island in the Nares Strait between Baffin Bay to the Lincoln Sea. The International Boundary Commission in turn is the company formed by Canada and the United States to maintain the Canada-US land border. However, the two countries disagree over the ownership of Machias Seal Island in the Gulf of Maine.
Provinces and territories
On the other hand, in each province, school boards also have their own territory which may differ from the units of local government formed by the provincial legislatures. In addition, federal electoral districts, provincial, regional, municipal and other differ from each other and units of local governance in many cases.
Geography and climate
Canada occupies most of the northern portion of North America. It shares a land border with the U.S. south, and another with the same country in north-west (between Alaska and the Yukon ), and extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the east until to the Pacific Ocean to the west, and north to the Arctic Ocean. He also shares a sea border with France ( Saint Pierre and Miquelon ) and Denmark (Greenland). Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic spread between 60 W and 141 W, and this claim is not universally recognized. Establishing the most northerly of Canada and the world is at Alert (Nunavut) , base of the Canadian Forces , at the top of Ellesmere Island (latitude 82.5 N to 834 km - 450 miles - North Pole ). Canada is the second largest country in the world.
The density of population, approximately 3.5 people per square kilometer, is one of the lowest in the world. The region most densely populated country is the Quebec-Windsor Corridor , along the lowlands of the river St. Lawrence and Great Lakes to the southeast. North of this region is the broad Canadian Shield , a region of rock washed by the last ice age, devoid of fertile land, rich in minerals, and featuring lakes and rivers. It includes the boreal forest , huge northern forest composed mainly of spruce and fir. Le Canada possde sur son territoire plus de lacs que tout autre pays dans le monde et possde une importante rserve d'eau douce.
Dans l'est du Canada, le fleuve Saint-Laurent se verse dans le Golfe du Saint-Laurent , le plus grand estuaire du monde ; l'le de Terre-Neuve se situe en son embouchure, alors que l' le-du-Prince-douard se situe au sud de celui-ci. Le Nouveau-Brunswick et la Nouvelle-cosse sont spars par la baie de Fundy , laquelle connat les variations de mares les plus grandes du monde. Ces quatre provinces maritimes s'avancent l'est de la pninsule gaspsienne du Qubec. L'Ontario et la baie d'Hudson dominent le centre du Canada, alors qu' l' ouest se trouvent les vastes plaines des Prairies canadiennes , passant par le Manitoba , la Saskatchewan et l' Alberta pour se rendre jusqu'aux montagnes Rocheuses qui les sparent de la Colombie-Britannique.
Au nord du 60 e parallle se trouve les trois territoires canadiens - Nunavut, Territoires du Nord-Ouest et Yukon parsems de plusieurs lacs (dont le Grand lac de l'Ours et le Grand lac des Esclaves) et traverss par le plus long fleuve du pays, le fleuve Mackenzie. De plus, les terres continentales du Nord Canadien sont bordes au nord d'un grand archipel, l' archipel arctique canadien comprenant certaines des plus grandes les du monde. Les dtroits se trouvant entre ces les constituent le passage Nord-Ouest, de la Mer du Labrador la Mer de Beaufort en passant par la Baie de Baffin. De plus, c'est dans cette rgion que l'on retrouve, en majorit au large et entre les les de la Reine-lizabeth, le ple nord magntique ainsi qu'une partie de la glace polaire.
La vgtation passe des forts de feuillus dans le Sud de l'Ontario aux forts mixtes et laurentiennes, et diminue graduellement vers le Nord canadien passant de la taga forts borales ou ceinture de conifres la toundra et finalement aux sols arides du Grand Nord.
Pour ce qui est du relief, le pays se dessine principalement de par les plaines des Prairies, et des plateaux du Bouclier canadien. Les Basses terres continentales de la Colombie-Britannique ainsi que la chane des Rocheuses occupent la rgion l'Ouest des Prairies alors que les montagnes Appalaches s'talent du Sud du Qubec vers les provinces maritimes.
La moyenne des tempratures absolues hivernales et estivales diffrent largement d'une rgion l'autre. L'hiver peut tre trs rude dans certaines rgions du pays, avec des tempratures moyennes mensuelles pouvant descendre 15 C sous le point de conglation dans la partie mridionale du pays, bien qu'il soit aussi possible d'atteindre des tempratures de 45 C avec de forts vents glaciaux. Les chutes de neige annuelles peuvent atteindre plusieurs centaines de centimtre en moyenne (par exemple, une moyenne de 337 cm Qubec). La cte de la Colombie-Britannique, notamment l'le de Vancouver, constitue une exception, et jouit d'un climat tempr avec des hivers doux et pluvieux. Pour ce qui est des ts, les tempratures peuvent grimper jusqu' 35 C , voire 40 C en tenant compte de l'indice humidex. La temprature la plus froide jamais observe au Canada est de 63 C , au Yukon.
Toronto
Toronto est la plus grande ville du Canada avant Montral et la capitale de la province de l' Ontario. La ville est situe sur la rive nord-ouest du lac Ontario. Avec plus de 2,5 millions d'habitants , Toronto est la cinquime plus grande ville en Amrique du Nord. En 2006, 5 113 149 personnes vivaient dans la rgion du Grand Toronto ainsi que 8,1 millions dans la mgapole du Croissant d'or (nomme , en anglais).
Montreal
Montral est la mtropole du Qubec. Elle constitue un centre majeur du commerce, de l'industrie, de la culture, de la finance et des affaires internationales ainsi qu'une des villes financires les plus importantes dans le monde. Montral a accueilli l' exposition universelle de 1967 et les Jeux olympiques d't de 1976. On peut y voir aussi le Festival International de Jazz de Montral , le Festival Juste Pour Rire , le Festival International Nuits d'Afrique , le Festival Montral en lumire , le club de hockey les Canadiens de Montral. Le Vieux-Montral a t dclar arrondissement historique en 1964.
Montral est considre comme la deuxime agglomration francophone de langue officielle dans le monde et la seule mtropole francophone en Amrique du Nord. Elle est aussi, aprs Toronto , la deuxime agglomration canadienne en importance ainsi qu'une des villes financires les plus importantes dans le monde. Les secteurs conomiques les plus importants sont la finance , les tlcommunications , le secteur arospatial , les transports , les mdias , les arts , le cinma , la production de sries tlvises , la a href = "% C3% 89dition_litt% C3% A9raire" title = "Literary Edition"> publication of documents, the computer , the medical research , the education , the tourism and sports.
Economy
Canada is one of the richest nations in the world, a member of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Group of Eight (G8). Canada has a market economy which suffers slightly more government intervention than the U.S. economy , but much less than most European countries. Canada had historically a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita lower than that of its neighbor to the south - although the wealth is distributed more equitably, but higher than in larger economies of Western Europe. From the 1990s through a government reform and a successful management of the state rigorous (see Policy rigor ), based on the principles of economic liberalism . The Canadian economy is experiencing a period of economic boom, with growth rate and a low unemployment rate. In 2008, Canada closely resembles the United States about its market-oriented in its economic system, its means of production, and its high standard of living. While in January 2008, the national unemployment rate in Canada was at its lowest since 1974, amounting to 5.8% and the provincial unemployment rates ranged between 3.2% and 12.2%. The crisis hit the country during 2008 and unemployment reached 6.2% of the workforce in November according to the ILO .
During the twentieth century, the impressive growth of manufacturing, mining and services transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an economy primarily industrial and urban. Like other modern, industrialized nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians. However, Canada is, unlike the industrialized countries, about the extraordinary importance that the primary sector in its economy, with two of its largest industries, oil and timber. Moreover, the country has large reserves of fresh water export to the United States been a recurring debate .
Unlike most developed nations, Canada is an exporter net of energy. Canada has vast reserves of natural gas on the east coast, and large resources of gas and oil primarily located in Alberta , in British Columbia and Saskatchewan. Large tracts of sands in the region of Athabasca put Canada in the eighth largest producer of oil (2006) . In British Columbia, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador is a source of renewable , abundant and low cost: the hydropower.
Canada is one of the largest suppliers of agricultural products in world, with the region of the prairie , which is one of the largest suppliers of wheat and grain through the Canadian Wheat Board. Canada is the second largest producer of diamonds in the world's largest producer of zinc and uranium , and a leader in several other natural resources such as the gold , the nickel , the aluminum and lead. Several cities, if not all cities in the Nordic region's countries, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector concentrated mainly in southern Ontario, with a major industrial base of the car thanks to the presence of American and Japanese manufacturers, and Quebec, with a strong network of aerospace industries through to a strong provincial and national industry.
Partly the result of its primary sector, Canada is highly dependent on international trade, especially trade with the United States. The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) by 1989, with the latter, and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994, which includes Mexico, triggering an impressive growth of trade and economic integration between Canada and the United States. Apart from the economic downturn of 2001, which technically has not been considered since a recession lasted less than two consecutive terms, Canada has not experienced a recession since 1991, and maintain in all the best economic performance of the Group of Eight (G8) until 2008.
Demography
Population
The 2001 national census recorded a population of 30,007,094 Canadians, the population is currently estimated by Statistics Canada to 33.9 million people of which 8.2 million Francophones. Canada is now at a thirty-third in the world on its people. The population growth is largely accomplished through immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About three quarters of Canadians live within 160 kilometers of border with the United States. A similar proportion live in urban areas concentrated in the Windsor-Quebec City corridor (including census metropolitan Toronto - Hamilton , Montreal and Ottawa - Gatineau ), the lower mainland of British Columbia (near Vancouver until at the end of the valley of Fraser River ) and in the corridor Calgary - Edmonton Alberta.
Since 1867, the historic population of Canada increased from 3.4 million to 34.0 million.
Canada is a diverse nation in ethnic terms. According to the census of 2001, 34 ethnic groups with at least 100 000 members live in Canada. The largest ethnic group is called "Canadian" (39.4%) since some Canadians consider themselves as ethnic Canadians, especially those whose ancestors came to colonial times, followed by those who claim English ( 20.2%), French (15.7%), Scottish (14.0%), Irish (12.9%), Germans (9.3%), Italians (4.3%), Chinese (3, 7%), Ukrainians (3.6%), Indians of North America (3.4%).
In late 2007, Canada had about 54,500 refugees and asylum seekers . The resettlement program for refugees in Canada accepted 11,100 refugees in 2007, including 2,040 from Afghanistan, 1790 in Myanmar / Burma, and 1650 the British . Canada has one of the highest rates of resettlement of refugees per capita of the World Refugee Survey 2008 released by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants ( U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants ).
Religion
Canadians adhere to a wide variety of religions. The last census, 77.1% of Canadians identify themselves as Christians ; thereof, the Catholics are the largest group with 43.6% of Canadians. The largest Protestant church is the United Church of Canada , approximately 17% of Canadians declared no religious affiliation, while the remaining population (6.3%) were affiliated with religions other than Christianity.
Education
In Canada, provinces and territories are responsible for the education , in this case, Canada has no national department of education. Each of the thirteen education systems are similar to others, and, while reflecting the history, culture and regional geography of the province. One of the great differences is probably that of Quebec, where the PSE starts at CEGEP (Collge d'enseignement gnral et professional), an educational institution preparing for university and training the technicians. The age for compulsory education varies across Canada but is usually around 5-7 years to 16-18 years, thus contributing to a literacy rate of 99% in adults . However, according to ABC Canada, 24% of Canadians are limited to reading simple .
Each province is responsible for organizing the management of its schools. However, under the constitutional provisions of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, under certain conditions and restrictions, Canadian citizens minority French or English in the province where they reside have the right to education in the language the minority in their province in all communities where the number is sufficient to justify the funding of schools from public funds. In addition, each province must establish school boards for their minority Francophone or Anglophone, where appropriate, to ensure themselves the management of their schools.
Postsecondary education is the responsibility of provincial and territorial governments, which provide the bulk of funding the federal government provides additional funding through grants for research. In 2002, 43% of Canadians aged between 25 and 64 have already had access to postsecondary education for those aged between 25 and 34 years, conducting post-secondary education reached 51%.
Official Languages
Both Canada's official languages, English and French, respectively, are the mother tongues of 57.8% and 22.1% of the population. On 7 July 1969 under the Official Languages Act, French obtained a status equal to that of English in all federal government agencies. This triggers a process that leads Canada to redefine itself as officially bilingual nation.
French and English have equal status in federal courts, Parliament and all federal Crown corporations and other governmental agencies in Canada. The public has a right to receive, where there is sufficient demand, the federal government services in either language. The use of bilingual road signs varies from province to province. While multiculturalism is an official immigration policy of Canada, become a citizen needs to comfortably either French or English - 98.5% of Canadians speak at least one language (English Only: 67.5% , French only: 13.3% Both: 17.7%). Note however that as only a few regions of Quebec and other provinces have primary language (or official), French, it can be very difficult to obtain services in French throughout, even if the country is called bilingual.
Although French is mainly spoken in the province of Quebec, other provinces - New Brunswick, eastern and northern Ontario and southern Manitoba - have a substantial share of people speaking. Of all those who speak French as their first language, 85% live in Quebec. French is the official language of the province of Quebec, as well as that of New Brunswick, Yukon and Nunavut (together with English for them). French is used as a language for education, in courts and other government services in all provinces and territories speaking mostly English or Inuktitut. Several aboriginal languages have official status in Northwest Territories , Inuktitut is the language of the majority of the population in Nunavut and one of the eleven official languages of this territory.
Non-official languages are important in Canada, with nearly 5.2 million people speaking at least as a first language. Non-official languages listed as native languages include Mandarin (853,745 native speakers), Italian (469,485 native speakers), German (438,080 native speakers) and Punjabi (271,220 native speakers).
Culture
Canadian culture has historically been influenced by the cultures and traditions in English, French, Irish, Scottish and Aboriginal, as well as American culture because of the proximity and exchange of human capital between the two countries. Several forms of American media and entertainment are popular and ubiquitous in Canada. Conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainment have hit the United States and around the world. Many cultural products are now widely marketed toward a unified North American market or a global market, although some regions retain their specificity. Including the maritime region that retains an air of folklore to Celtic culture of Ireland and Scotland and, by extension, consistent with the principal feature of the culture of Acadia and Quebec, whose folklore is full of rhythms Gallo-Roman Gaul Celtic.
Moreover, a striking difference continues to dominate for many people in the foundations of French Canada. These give a particular specificity to the American continent, and the nature of Canada, which is to imply to many people that the city of Montreal is in this case the hub of French culture in America. In doing so, many francophone artists fuse around the country (Quebec, Acadia, Ontario, Manitoba, etc..) United States (including the Cajun country ) and the Caribbean for a career in Montreal in both literary , music, film, etc.. Besides the many artists from Europe, the Middle East and Africa are also carving out a place to build thriving further Latin culture in Canada.
The creation and preservation of a distinct Canadian culture is partly influenced by federal government programs, laws and political institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB) and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
Canada has many internationally renowned orchestras such as the Quebec Symphony Orchestra , the Toronto Symphony Orchestra and especially the Montreal Symphony Orchestra conducted by Kent Nagano. Canada also has several alternative rock bands extremely important on the world stage as Arcade Fire , Simple Plan , Hot Hot Heat , The Dears , Malajube , Godspeed You! Black Emperor , The Stills and The Sam Roberts Band. And groups operating on the international punk scene alternative such as Billy Talent , Alexisonfire , Silverstein , or Cancer Bats.
Canadian culture is also partly influenced by the recent immigration of people from around the world. Many Canadians value multiculturalism, which suggests the eyes of some people that Canada's culture is inherently multicultural. Moreover, Canada's multicultural heritage is protected by Article 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
National symbols are largely the result of influences from natural sources and historical and indigenous peoples. More specifically, the use of the maple leaf as a Canadian national symbol dates from the early eighteenth century , and is shown on the old flags of Canada, on its current flag , the one hundred ( pronounced . Canada was the first to introduce stricter laws on standards of cleanliness and hygiene conditions for the collection of milk and the development of cheese . Canada is also a major producer of ice cider as well as rustic specialties based game .
Sports
The official national sport of Canada include ice hockey (winter) and lacrosse (summer). Hockey is a national pastime, and by far the most popular sport in the country. The six largest metropolitan areas in Canada - Toronto , Montreal , Vancouver , Ottawa , Calgary and Edmonton - are home-town teams as an integral part of the National Hockey League (NHL). In all League teams (thirty teams divided between Canada and the United States), over 50% of all players are from Canada. Other popular sports include Canadian Curling and Canadian football (especially the Canadian Football League ). Soccer, basketball and baseball are played at levels considerably and young lovers, but do not know as much popularity on the professional scene as other sports. Canada is the country hosting the World Cup football (soccer) under 20 years, 2007 and the Winter Olympics of 2010 in Vancouver and Whistler in British Columbia.
Symbols of Canada
- The Maple
- The Maple Leaf
- The beaver : beaver has been elevated to an official emblem of Canada March 24, 1975, when an "act of recognition of the beaver (Castor canadensis) as a symbol of the sovereignty of Canada" received royal assent. Today, through techniques of wildlife preservation, the beaver, Canada's largest rodent, survives and thrives in the country .
- The Great Seal of Canada
- The moose
- The Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Canada Flag , commonly called the Maple Leaf
Flag of the Governor General of Canada
Interesting Facts
- Cape Spear, the highest point in eastern Canada (and North America), located in Newfoundland and Labrador on the Avalon Peninsula. It is closer to Paris (4000 km) and Vancouver (5020 km).
- The Great Lakes constitute the total area under the largest source of fresh water not ice in the world.
- The Hudson Bay is the largest inland body of water in the world.
- Provincial boundaries of the East are emerging thanks to the natural elements (such as rivers, terrain, etc.). And historic regions, whereas those in the West are emerging for most of Cartesian by administrative decisions.
- Stampede Calgary is the largest outdoor festival in the world and is held each summer.
- The Quebec Carnival is the largest winter carnival in the world and takes place each winter in the month of February.
- The Confederation Bridge , linking New Brunswick to Prince Edward Island Prince Edward Island and killing 13 km long, is the longest continuous bridge over a sea area covered with ice in the world ( surpassed only by the bridge-tunnel of the Chesapeake Bay which is about 36 km long).
- The CN Tower in Toronto, is the second tallest freestanding structure on land built by humans with close to 555 meters tall (overwhelmed by the Burj Dubai in 2007), the access point to the general public is the highest the world at nearly 450 meters above the ground.
- Quebec City is the oldest capital city - and the only fortified city - North America
- The Bay Company Hudson , increasingly recognized as the Bay (The Bay in English) is the oldest company in North America (1670).
- Ottawa is the political capital, Montreal is the capital of French culture, Toronto is the cultural capital of English, Toronto is the financial capital of Canada, share dealing and trading with Europe and the United States, Montreal is the capital Financial derivatives and the capital of fashion, Vancouver is the financial capital of trade with Asia-Pacific, and trade currencies and precious metals; Calgary is the financial capital of the trade of energy resources; Winnipeg is the capital financial trade of agricultural products; Halifax is the financial capital of the trade of fishery products; Oshawa car is the capital.
- Niagara-on-the-Lake, near Niagara Falls and more than 100 km away, it is possible to observe a clear day the skyline of the buildings of downtown Toronto.
- Five Canadian beaches were awarded the Blue Flag designation under the International Programme on the environmental quality of beaches (one of them is on the South Bruce Peninsula in Ontario, while the other four are located on the banks of City of Toronto).
- The Royal Canadian Mounted Police has a unique structure that allows it to be all at once a police jurisdiction of federal, provincial and municipal levels.
- The Municipality of James Bay, James Bay (in the region of northern Quebec), is the largest municipality in the world in terms of land area, an area of over 350 000 km 2.
- Sable Island, 300 miles off land Nova Scotia (Atlantic Ocean), is the only jurisdiction in Canada where access is restricted by the Government of Canada, including almost all population is actually a colony of wild horses living in perfect autarky.
- The Devon Island , in Nunavut , is the largest uninhabited island on Earth, and serves as a testing ground for the Canadian Space Agency since its environment has many similarities with the environment of Mars , and thus has some characteristics experiments simulating conditions on Mars .
- The largest "fleet" of mobile homes in the world is in Alberta, more exactly in Fort McMurray.
- Tower of Montreal's Olympic Stadium is the tallest inclined tower in the world.
- The city of Montreal is the 2nd largest French speaking city after Paris.
International ranking
| Organization | Poll | Rank |
|---|---|---|
| AT Kearney / Foreign Policy Magazine | Globalization Index 2005 | 14 of 111 |
| IMD | World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005 | 5 of 60 |
| The Economist | The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005 | 14 of 111 |
| Yale University / Columbia University | Environmental Sustainability Index, 2005 (pdf) | 6 of 146 |
| Reporters Without Borders World-wide | Press Freedom Index 2007 | 16 of 167 |
| Transparency International | Corruption Perceptions Index 2007 | 14 of 159 |
| Heritage Foundation / The Wall Street Journal | Index of Economic Freedom, 2006 | 12 of 157 |
Codes
Canada has codes for:
- AC, as the list of country codes used by NATO , alpha-2 code;
- Canada, according to the standard ISO 3166-1 (list of country codes), code alpha-2;
- CAN, according to the standard ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 (list of country codes);
- CAN, according to the list of country codes IOC ;
- CAN, according to the list of country codes used by NATO , code alpha-3;
- CDN (Canadian Dominion), according to the list of international codes of plates ;
- CAD indicates that this is Canadian dollars.
Notes and references
Notes
References
- The Canadian population clock.
- GDP at purchasing power parity , according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
- nominal GDP, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
- Official languages: Away goals, Fraser said on Radio-Canada , Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , May 26, 2009. Accessed May 26, 2009
- (en) Origin of the Name - Canada - Official site of Canadian Heritage
- Jacques Cartier, of the second voyage (1535-1536)
- (en) Michael Agnes, Webster's New World, College Dictionary, Wiley Publishing, fourth edition, Cleveland, 2004, p. 811.
- (en) Michael Agnes, Webster's New World, College Dictionary, Wiley Publishing, fourth edition, Cleveland, 2004, p. 1696-1697.
- Bjarni Herjlfsson-Vikings-eleventh century-Passageways
- The Saga of Erik the Red-Vikings-Eleventh Century-Passageways
- Parks Canada - National Historic Site of Canada L'Anse aux Meadows
- Heritage of Newfoundland and Labrador
- The Portuguese Explorers: Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage
- Labrador border conflict
- The Corte Real Brothers - The New Continent - Sixteenth Century - Pathfinders and Passageways
- The File Origin has been a year of existence
- civilisations.ca - VMNF - 1613
- companies merchant
- Compagnie des Cent-Associs
- The French law
- civilisations.ca - VMNF - Pierre Boucher
- Canadian Military Heritage
- Manuscript on MuseeMcCord
- Agreement between the Company of the Colony of Canada and Louis Guigues
- Toronto, toponym Bourg-Royal
- Toronto, toponym Trait-Carr
- Charles Albanel
- Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville and Ardillires
- The tercentenary ...
- Great Peace of Montreal (1701)
- Message from Mr. Jacques Chirac, President of the Republic on the occasion of the commemoration of the tercentenary of the Great Peace of Montreal
- History of Canada since Jacques Cartier and French-Canadian bilateral relations
- Acadian Museum, University of Moncton
- LONGFELLOW, Henry Wadsworth. Evangeline French edition Nimbus Publishing, Halifax, 2003, page 5.
- Parks Canada - National Historic Site of Canada in the Battle of the Chteauguay
- canadianencyclopedia.com / index.cfm? = TCE & Params PgNm F1ARTF0001539 = "class =" external text "rel =" nofollow "> Battle of Chteauguay
- News Release August 15, 2002: Prime Minister of Quebec and Prime Minister of New Brunswick Open a memorial to the Acadians
- August 15, 2002 - Inauguration of a memorial and a memorial to the Acadians
- Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada
- The Patriots
- violations by Canada of the political rights of Quebecers
- History: The British Regime (1760-1840)
- Clean our history - diaries, witnesses of an era (1758-1954) - The diary of the poet and journalist Alfred DesRochers
- Canadian Military Heritage
- Garneau, Franois-Xavier
- Ultramontanism
- The Story of a broken dream. French Canadians in the U.S.
- Franco-Americans
- Franco-Ontarians
- Grand Coalition
- Charlottetown Conference
- Quebec Conference
- London Conference
- Fathers of Confederation
- America Act British North
- GILMOUR, Glen A. The violence motivated by hatred, Ministry of Justice of Canada, May 1994.
- Multiculturalism - Head Tax on Chinese immigrants
- Parks Canada - National Historic Site of Canada, Batoche
- Voting rights for women in Canada
- forgotten Documentary History (series V) - Episode 1 Productions Vic Pelletier inc., documentary broadcast on TFO , Saturday, January 12, 2008 from 1:30 p.m. to 2:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST)
- Stories forgotten Documentary Series
- Issue on the border of Labrador - Canadian Confederation
- Labrador border conflict of
- News Release October 31, 2001 - The Minister of Natural Resources of Quebec and Minister for Canadian Intergovernmental Affairs express Quebec's position in relation to the amendment of the constitutional designation of Newfoundland
- Abitibi-Tmiscamingue
- MRNF - The mines in the Abitibi-Tmiscamingue
- Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (the Laurendeau-Dunton)
- British law of 1982 on Canada: a law for the rest of the country
- Supreme Court of Canada - Decisions - Reference re Secession of Quebec
- Clarity Act 2000, ch. 26
- Act respecting the exercise of fundamental rights and prerogatives of the Qubec people and the Quebec State
- The Fall of Quebec
- The Encyclopedia of The Agora: The motto "Je me souviens
- Museum Acadian - Acadian History
- Trudeau's War Measures Act speech - The October Crisis: Civil Liberties Suspended - Conflict and War - CBC Archives
- The Black Book of English Canada
- Where are the limits of laissez-say?
- Citations anti-Quebec
- Documents Case Yves Michaud
- CSN - Open Letter - March 21, 2007 - Reply by Claudette Carbonneau Lucien Bouchard1publi Policy Options
- Assembly of the Ontario Francophonie
- Governance sovereignist
- Aboriginal Smuggling: 70 organizations denounced the laxity of governments
- Convention United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol
- Global Warming: Canada aligns with the Asia-Pacific
- Kyoto Protocol: No official withdrawal
- The Asia Pacific Partnership approves clean energy projects
- Environment: Harper aligned with APEC
- Act 1867, section 17
- The Office of the Governor General's Secretary
- pco-bcp.gc.ca
- Palango, Paul; Globe and Mail: Privy Council nod royal betrothal is 'medieval', 8 May 1981
- About the Treasury Board
- a and b Supreme Court of Canada - The Canadian judicial system
- Supreme Court of Canada - About the Court
- Supreme Court of Canada - Remarks of the Right Honourable Beverley McLachlin, PC
- CanLII - 1867
- geopolitical map of Canada
- Reference Maps
- Statistics Canada, 2006 Census
- After Paris (9.6 million), but most in this city speak other languages as their mother tongue
- presentation by the French National Assembly , for the French state , by the Liberals , ...
- See chart p.69 Report of the Preparatory dorientation French budget debate of 2008, and detailed figures , Canadian Department of Finance. The fiscal year in Canada runs from April 1 to March 31 next year. Official figures are for year-end, that is to say, to March 31 of that year. They are in Canadian dollars.
- [pdf] (in) Unemployment (aggregate level and rate) in December 2008 , International Labour Organization , 2008. Accessed 22-01-2009
- News article on water export of fresh water from Canada to the United States
- Natural Resources Canada
- The Canadian population (Statistics Canada, March 26, 2009)
- a and b U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 2008. World Refugee Survey 2008.
- Population of Canada
- See the Future: A Portrait of Literacy in Canada (1996)
- LESSARD, Denis. French: Quebec hidden statistics, La Presse, January 23, 2008.
- BLAIR-CIRINO, Marco. The French in Montreal: 90% of French are concerned, Le Devoir, June 22, 2009.
- http://www.fromagesdici.com/
- http://www.plaisirslaitiers.ca/le-fromage/l-histoire-du-fromage/le-fromage-au-canada
- http://www.authentikcanada.com/recettes-qu ebec-canada.shtml
- Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols: the beaver
- Roundel of the airforce
- See Simulating Mars on Earth
See also
Related Articles
- Francization
- Acadia
- Historic population of Canada
- Canadian Confederation
- Federal Election Canada
- Canadian Taxation
- Canadian Armed Forces
- History of Canada
- Alphabetical list of Canadian writers
- List of Canadian Newspapers
- Sports in Canada
- Statistics Canada
- Canadian university system
- Tourism in Canada
- Canadian Cities
- Canadian cities by population
- List of cities in Canada
- Ephemeris and events for 2011
- List of Governors General of Canada
Bibliography
- Arsenault, Bona, History of the Acadians in Saint-Laurent (Quebec), Fides, 1994.
- Beaudoin, Grald-A., The Division of powers, Ottawa, Ed. University of Ottawa, 1983.
- Bone, Robert M., The regional geography of Canada, Don Mills, Oxford University Press, 2000.
- Brooks, Stephen, Canadian democracy: an introduction, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996.
- Bumsted, JM, The Peoples of Canada, post-confederation history, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992.
- Chaussade, John, Canada, or the risk of bursting of a great country, Paris, Ellipses, 1995.
- Collective, The Geography of Canada, Bordeaux, Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux, 1986.
- Cross, William Paul, Political Parties, Vancouver, UBC Press, Collection Canadian Democratic Audit, 2004.
- Kinder, Louis, New France and the world, Montreal (Quebec), Louis De Kinder, 2001.
- Dickason, Olive Patricia, Canada's First Nations: A History of Founding Peoples from Earliest Times, Norman (Okla.): University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.
- Dickason, Olive Patricia, First nations, Sillery (Quebec), north, 1996.
- Forcese, Craig and Aaron Freeman, The Laws of Government: The legal foundations of Canadian democracy, Toronto (Ontario), Irwin Law, 2005.
- Fowke, Edith, Explorations in Canadian Folklore, Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1985.
- Granatstein, Jack Lawrence, Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2002.
- Havard, Gilles, History of French America, Paris, Flammarion, 2003.
- Hurley, James Ross, Changing the Constitution of Canada, History, Processes, Problems and Prospects, Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services, 1996.
- Lacoursire, Jacques, Canada Quebec, historical summary, 1534-2000, Sillery (Quebec): north, 2001.
- Lester, Norman, The Black Book of English Canada, Volume 1, Montreal, Les Editions Untouchables, 2001.
- Lester, Norman, The Black Book of English Canada, Volume 2, Montreal, Les Editions Untouchables, 2002.
- Lester, Norman, The Black Book of English Canada, Volume 3, Montreal, Les Editions Untouchables, 2003.
- Neill, Robin, A History of Canadian Economic Thought, New York, Routledge, 1991.
- Noll, Mark A, A History of Christianity In The United states and Canada, Grand Rapids, WB Eerdmans, 1996.
- Philpot, Robin, flew Referendum, Montreal, Les Editions Untouchables, 2005.
External Links
- Official website of Government of Canada
- Canada Class Directory dmoz
- (In) Official website of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants
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| Central America | ||
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